Face It: the Impact of Gender on Social Media Images Essay

Social websites like Facebook enable users to upload ego-created digital images it is therefore of bet to see how sex is performed in this domain. A panel used a literature review of pictorial features associated with sexual activity traits, and a sample of Facebook pictures to assess sexual activity stereotypes usher in in Facebook images. Traits emerging in greater prominence in pictures of males included active, dominant, and independent. Those prominent with female users included attractive and dependent. These findings generally conform to sex stereotypes found in prior look into and extend the research regarding stereotypical sexual activity traits debunked in professional media depictions to egotism-importance-selected cordial media displays. They in like manner extend the research on gender differences in whim manage handst generally, in both inter personalized communication and social media, to include gender-specific traits that ar part of young mens and wome ns impression management. Keywords Facebook sex activity Display Impression Management Role Theory Social MediaJessica Rose (B.A., Villanova University, 2011) is a merchandising and communications professional in the Greater Philadelphia Area. Susan Mackey-Kallis (Ph.D., Penn resign University, 1986) is an associate professor in the Department of Communication at Villanova University. Len Shyles (Ph.D., Ohio State University, 1981) is an associate professor in the Department of Communication at Villanova University. Kelly Barry (B.A., Villanova University, 2011) is a marketing and communications professional in the Greater New York area. Danielle Biagini (B.A., Villanova University, 2011) is a marketing and communications professional in the Greater San Diego area. Colleen Hart (B.A., Villanova University, 2011) is a student at the University of North Carolina School of Law. Lauren Jack (B.A., Villanova University, 2011) is a marketing and communications professional in the Greate r New York area. The authors would like to thank Dr. Jesse Frey of the Mathematics Department of Villanova University for his armed service in creating the tables presented in this article. Correspondence Susan Mackey-Kallis, Department of Communication, 800 E. Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA 19085 E-mail susan.mackey-kallisvillanova.edu ISSN 0146-3373 print/1746-4102 online 2012 Eastern Communication Association DOI 10.1080/01463373.2012.725005The primality of gender embodiment has animated fresh debates in media studies round the relationship among gender re presentations in media, gendered bodies in virtual space, and gender as performance. With the emergence of social media websites, such as Twitter, Facebook, and MySpace, users maintain an online course of prove that allows them to communicate widely, to virtually manage another(prenominal)s impressions of them, and to even express gendered identities in cyberspace. With over 500 million active users as of 2011 (http/ /www.facebook.com/press/info.php?statistics), Facebook dominates the social media market. Offering a highly interactive platform, Facebook users give the axe leave comments on their friends walls, provide status updates and picture shows, and can even access one a nonher wire slightly through Facebook Mobile. As of 2010, users worn-out(a) over 700 billion minutes per month on Facebook (http//www.facebook.com/ press/info.php?statistics), oft updating their Facebook visibilitys to add relationships to their friends lists.One well-known feature of Facebook is the users profile picture, displayed in the upper left-hand corner of each users homepage. Intended to be the first thing seen, it is arguably one of the most beta features of the users Facebook page. The profile picture killers friends, acquaintances and even potential employers a firstimpression of the users appearance and, perhaps, their character. Therefore, the meat of users Facebook profile pictures is an important ob ject of sketch for researchers interested in how people practice impression management. According to role theory, people follow unwritten social and cultural rules and norms as they behave in ways that are different and predictable depending on their respective social identities and the situations they find themselves in (Biddle, 1986, p. 68).Gender identity and gender roles are a meaning(a) part of everyday life and, according to Goffman, are existingly constituted through social interaction (1976). Gender shapes how people make sense of themselves and their social relationships. However, as Wood nones, What gender means depends heavily on cultural values and practices a cultures definitions of masculinity and femininity shape expectations about how individual men and women should communicate and how individuals communicate establishes gender that, in turn, influences cultural views (Wood, 2009, p. 20). Gender display, as a continuous communication loop, is defined by social cl ub and expressed by individuals as they interact while shaping evolving social expectations regarding gender.In contemporary media and culture, womens and mens social desirability and gender have much been defined in terms of their bodies. For women, this has often involved comparing themselves to and even replicating the thin ideal (presented in modern mass media in spite of the looming specter of anorexia and bulimia), altering their bodies to heighten perceived sexuality or youthfulness (through cosmetic surgery, exercise or eating), or conforming to traditional definitions of femininity including qualities such as submissiveness or sentimentality (through dress, cosmetics, style, etc.). For men, gender-based definitions of success frequently revolve around presenting or developing their bodies as strong, youthful, active, and physically dominant. The evolution of social media (such as Facebook) and online digital gaming environments (such as massive, multiple online games MMO s) now offer venues where individuals can consciously self-select and present virtual versions of themselves that can either conform with, challenge, or defy societal expectations and media presentations.Digital formats, on the one hand, represent exciting possibilities for individuals who can explore the freedom of presenting a physical self that might differ from the one they present or perform in everyday life or from socially-defined expectations. As Rettberg argues, our fascination with creating digital self- enactments is indicative of our collective coming of age where we as a culture are discovering that we have voices online and can express ourselves rather than simply accepting the mass medias views of the globe (2009, p. 453). On the other hand, digital formats may simply offer a chance to replicate cultural and mass media normative versions of the individual, specifically as they relate to gender. Since how people present and perform their bodies in virtual spaces offe r specific impressions, many of which relate to gender, one objective of the current study is to examine how gender portrayals manifest themselves in self-selected social media displays.Specifically, can social media website content help us understand more about gender roles and the way people present themselves in the virtual social world? Do the ways they manage their images reinforce vivacious gendered stereotypes? Because social networks such as Facebook are relatively recent phenomena, the content of self-presentation profile pictures has not been examine in great depth. Extant literature supports the idea of expected gender roles unique to males and females (Goffman, 1976 Lauzen, Dozier, & Horan, 2008 Wanta & Legett, 1989 Williams & scoop up, 1990) and the idea that society advocates these roles through various media (Bell & Milic, 2002 Hancock & Toma, 2009), with both males and females pleasing in impression management in order to control their public image (Dominick, 199 9 Jones, 1997 Leary, 1996).Witmer and Katzman (1997) argued that females may display more emotional graphics than males while communication on the Internet. Extant literature, however, only reveals one study that has examined gender differences in self-selected portraits in self-posed photographs (mill, 1984) and one study that has examined gender differences in Facebook profile pictures (Strano, 2008). Stranos study, guidance exclusively on gender difference in impression management, found that women engage in management more than men (Strano, 2008). In a related to area of literature, self-presentation in computer-mediated communication (CMC), some studies suggest a great deal of gender-swapping on the Internet (Bruckman, 1993 Roberts & Parks, 1999 Witmer & Katzman, 1997) with some estimates as high as 60% (Roberts & Parks, 1999), and with males gender-swapping more than females (Bruckman, 1993 Suler, 1999).The fantastical and fantasy-based nature of many gaming environments, h owever, and the anonymous nature of most CMC in general might suggest that the freedom to reinvent oneself not only in terms of gender but also race, ethnicity, and other variables is much broader than in Facebook profile pictures. Facebook friends, who may know the person in original life, recognize a photograph as a self-selected presentation but, researchers argue, most likely do not assume that the profile picture reflects gigantic diversity or photo retouching. The current study, therefore, makes a unique contribution by investigating whether self-selected Facebook profile pictures exhibit stereotypical gender roles consistent with traits emerging from existing research.Literature Review Gender Roles Some researchers suggest that gender differences result from a variety of factors including socialization and biology as such, gender roles are often manifested through communication and culture (Goffman, 1976 Lauzen et al., 2008 Wanta & Legett, 1989 Williams & Best, 1990 Wood, 2009). West and Zimmerman (1987) claim gendering is a routine interaction of everyday life. Both gender role and gender display rivet on behavioral aspects of being a man and a woman (p. 127). They use Goffmans (1976) account of gender display to suggest gender is also constituted through interaction. Says Goffman, If gender can be defined as the culturally established correlates of sex (whether in consequence of biology or learning), then gender display refers to conventionalized portrayals of these correlates (1976, p. 69). Goffman cites sports as a framework to explain masculine tendencies, claiming that the male gender is categorically viewed as aggressive, strong, and competitive. In agreement, West and Zimmerman (1987) assert that Doing gender is unavoidable . . . because of the social consequences of sex-category membership this includes the allocation of power and resources not only in the domestic, economic, and political domains but also in the broad region of interpers onal relations (p. 145).As men and women tend to assume proper societal gender roles, associated behaviors are viewed as cultural markers that indicate norms of social interaction. Williams and Best (1990) searched for gender stereotypes among respondents from 25 nations worldwide. Participants were presented with a list of 300 character traits and instructed to indicate whether the trait was more frequently associated with men than with women, more frequently associated with women than with men, or not differentially associated with the two sexes. Table 1 presents results for the traits most commonly associated with men and women and indicates the traits isolated for this analysis. Gender Roles in the Media Society often promotes gender role markers as social norms through photographs and other visual displays used in advertising. Wanta and Legett (1989) studied the media images of male and female athletes of the 1987 Wimbledon Tennis Tournament, concluding that men and women were visualized differently in terms of emotion, dominance, and power.Goffman (1976) accounts for these traits in his research of magazine and newspaper photography, finding women to be pictured in more submissive positions while men are depicted in more elevated positions. Based on Goffmans inquiries, Wanta and Legett (1989) hypothesized that female tennis players would be shown more often in positions implying helplessness than male tennis players. Goffmans (1976) studies of power within photographs asserted that the more dominant a persons face was (i.e., the more full-front, direct-to-camera orientation of the face, and the greater the percentage of photo space taken up by the face), the more power was held and=or portrayed by the person pictured. Wanta and Legett used these ideas to predict that the photographs of female tennis players would emphasis more on the players bodies, while male tennis players would have more concentrated images of their faces. However, the majority of Wanta and Legetts (1989) hypotheses remained unsubstantiated their gender stereotypes were not confirmed. In fact, other portrayals often emerged.They cerebrate that the photographer was trying to break gender stereotypes. In contrast to the work of Wanta and Legett, the research conducted in the current study does not curse on images shot by professional photographers. Rather, the present analysis is based on self-selected and, almost exclusively, self-created Facebook profile pictures. Gender roles, present in everyday interaction, are also enacted on television. Lauzen and colleagues (2008) examined gender roles enacted by men and women on television.Using a stratified random sample of 124 prime-time television series airing on six broadcast networks during the 200506 seasons, they looked at the rates at which men and women fell into categorically different social roles. Taking a category scheme develop by earlier research, Lauzen and colleagues defined social roles as the th ings people do in daily life (see Eagly & Steffan, 1984, p. 735). These roles vary from childcare and household chores to workplace activities. done a content analysis, they found male characters on prime-time television were more likely to inhabit work roles, including blue collar, white collar, and extracurricular activities, while women were portrayed in more interpersonal roles involving romance, friendship, and family.Similarly, in their content analysis of 827 Australian magazine advertisements from 199798 to determine the presence of stereotypical gender roles, Bell and Milic (2002) concluded that Males were more frequently shown in narrative ways (as actors) than females, and this is true of both groups and individuals. Women were more likely than men to behave (or to express emotion) (p. 215). Their findings suggest stereotypical gender traits of men and women consistent with those of Williams and Best (1990) and consistent with Goffmans (1976) analysis of advertising whic h found that women were more likely to be portrayed performing submissive or appeasing gestures such as head or body canting, bending one knee inward (bashful knee-bend), smiling, clowning, and acting less seriously and were often portrayed as being under the physical care and protection of a man (as cited in Bell and Milic, 2002, p. 205).Ragan (1982) breakd gender differences in 1,296 portrait photos from high school and university yearbooks, concluding there are gender differences females smiled more than males, smiled more expansively than males, tilted their heads at greater angles than males, faced the camera less directly than males, and wore glasses less frequently than males. While this research identifies gender differences, it was limited by an influential factor Photographers posed the subjects (Ragan, 1982). In hopes of accounting for this limitation, Mills (1984) conducted a study in which 34 men and 34 women were asked to present themselves as typical college students in pictures. Mills findings reinforced the suggestion that females smile more, and smile more expansively, than males. Gender stereotypes also abound in video games.Female characters are represented as highly sexualized while male characters possess hyperbolise strength, are hypermasculine, aggressive, and, with the exception of showing hostility, lack emotion. They are also less likely to display helping or nurturing qualities (Robinson, Callister, Clark, & Phillips, 2008). One study found that the central role for male characters was competitor while females central roles were victim, damsel in distress, or evil obstacle for the hero to overcome (Heintz-Knowles et al., 2001). The findings of these video game content analyses have remained fairly consistent over time and have also been shown to be perceived by audiences (Robinson et al., 2008).Based on the work from several decades of research on gender roles from the fields of advertising, television, photography, digital gaming studies, and cultural studies, it is apparent that masculinity often implies strength, ambition, and independence, whereas femininity implies physical attractiveness, reverence, and sentimentality (Wood, 2009). The rapid growth of digital media invites researchers interested in the cultural impact of gender to investigate this alternative outlet for self-presentation. This study provides a natural extension of such work in investigation of gender differences in self-selected Facebook profile pictures. Self-Presentation Goffman (1959) argued that individuals were concerned with self-presentation during all social encounters. This is because, among other reasons, impressions impact the opinions of others regardless of an individuals intentions. Burr (2002) claims J. Rose et al.The other people making up our audience can, by their own conduct, either legitimate or reject our claim to be a certain benign of person, and Goffman (1959) argues that this is done by carefully monitoring th e match or mismatch between what we give (the things we say or do to create an impression) and what we give off (the body language, our general demeanorthe communicative aspects of our conduct that are harder for us to control and manipulate). The creation and maintenance of impressions is therefore a two-way street (2002, p. 73).Hence, for Goffman (1959), the presentation of self in everyday life and the roles maintained are pertinent to everyday interaction. People constantly play characters to avoid embarrassment and to fit-in with social norms. Gender role, then, focuses on the collectivity of logical, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional responses to social situations (Burr, 2002). Most self-presentation studies have examined the concept only in face-to-face communication (Goffman, 1959 Leary 1996). Recent studies (Oh, 2004 Cho, 2006) about self-presentation in personal websites analyze only the styles and not gender display specifically. Similar to face-to-face contexts, indiv iduals do make choices about gender-related impressions over the Internet. A number of studies, for example, have demonstrated extensive gender-swapping in avatar creation for online gaming and in text-based CMC (Bruckman, 1993 Roberts & Parks, 1999 Suler, 1999).In these virtual environments, physical identity markers are not apparent and, as a result, the self is more fluid and changeable (Gergen, 1991) and offers increased opportunities for strategic self-presentation (Walther, 1993 Walther, Anderson, & Park, 1994). Gender is often one of the variables that communicators can consciously shape in these mediated environments (Roberts & Parks, 1999 Bruckman, 1993 Wilbur, 1996). Some researchers have gone so far as to argue that the computer-mediated environment is a gender-bending world (Witmer & Katzman, 1997). Modern gaming environments, in particular, allow gamers to design or consider avatars, their virtual self in the gaming world, that possess a variety of differing characteri stics such as height, weight, age, gender, dress, and profession. In these environments, the avatar becomes inextricably linked to their performance of self and engagement in a virtual community (Taylor, 1999, p. 438).Despite the above cited studies of gender-swapping and self-presentation in CMC, no researchers have examined the extent to which social media users ascribe to gender stereotypes in their presentation of self on the Internet. Samp, Wittenberg, and Gillett (2003) examined the extent to which gender schematic individuals (individuals with either strong masculine or feminine gender orientations versus androgynous orientations) and individuals who were high (versus low) self-monitoring engaged in gender-swapping on the Internet. The researchers in this study used self-report data from Internet users about their online gender-swapping behavior generally.The researchers in the current study, by contrast, provide a content analysis of actual Facebook profile pictures in terms of the presence or absence of gender stereotypes and do not focus on gender swapping. Hancock and Tomas 2009 study of profile pictures on online dating websites created and posted with the intention of creating relationships comes closest to the focus of the current study. In line with Goffmans (1959) suggestion that self-presentation is the process of packaging and redact the self in order to create a certain impression for an audience, Hancock and Toma (2009) examined the impact of gender on self-presentation and social desirability. They found that both women and men edit their profiles to create a better self-presentation through self-enhancement (Hancock & Toma, 2009). Some participate in selective self-presentation, an even more controlled act of impression management in which images are changed or distorted, often leading to further inaccuracy portrayed by the profile (Hancock & Toma, 2009).Having the ability to select or specifically change or display particular points of interest, the users can greatly affect the impression made of them (Hancock & Toma, 2009). Both men and women on the online dating social network use selective self-presentation to their receipts to give the impression of being more desirable to their audiences. Hancock and Toma (2009) suggest men and women can control their self-presentation through social networks (i.e., online dating sites). Such sites pay one segment of social networks Facebook is another. Realizing stereotypical gender roles are present in society, Dominick (1999) studied how men and women presented themselves on personal homepages. Dominick (1999) coded 500 randomly sampled personal homepages based on demographic and personal information, creative expressions, and photographs. He used Jones (1997) five strategies of image device ingratiation (statements of modesty, familiarity, and humor) competence (statements of abilities and achievements) intimidation (statements of anger and unpleasantness) type (acts of moral superiority) and supplication (images of helplessness, while acting self-deprecating Dominick, 1999).He concluded that females released more information than males while both males and females were equally likely to have photographs on their pages. Womens photographs tended to be more sentimental in nature, while mens more often were joke images and images that made them seem more fit and capable. He concluded that A personal web page can be viewed as a carefully constructed selfpresentation (Dominick, 1999, p. 647). Dominick asserted that the concept of impression construction exposes the different strategies men and women use to present themselves through images and information to gain a higher level of likeability, respect, and power in society (1999). Jones (1997) noted that individuals touch to be liked and accepted, resulting in social rewards such as friendship, social support, companionship, romance, and social status.Because smiling is associated with being liked and competent, Jones (1997) correlates gestures with the ingratiation and competence strategies of image construction. As Facebook was not founded until 2004, Dominicks (1999) study is expanded upon in this study (http//www.facebook.com/press/info.php?factsheet). Buffardi and Campbell (2008) studied whether photographs from a variety of social networks are self-promoting. They state, Self-promoting connoted persuading others about ones own positive traits (p. 1307) and define physical attractiveness as the degree to which an individual appears self-promoting and vain in a photograph. While not examining gender differences in self-promotion per se, the researchers did examine how sexy and modest . . . the individual in the main photo appeared to be (Buffardi & Campbell, 2008, p. 1307).

‘QWERTY’ Keyboard

1. Where does the name QWERTY Keyboard come from?It comes from the top sise keys on the keyboard, head starting with left or so in the keyboard which read they read exactly q, w, e, r, t, y. The QWERTY keyboard was invented by Christopher Sholes who was issued a sheer for a shellwriter on July 14, 1868. The QWERTY keyboard is named after the five letter keys located at the top left boldness of the keyboard and is now the official standard of reckoner keyboards (ISO 9995). Today, the QWERTY keyboard is the roughly commonly found and practice sessiond computer keyboard in the United States.2. Why do you think the QWERTY keyboard is the most popular method of data entry?The QWERTY keyboard is the most popular method of entering data because an easy way of usage and when you get used to it you start typing faster.3. Who might make use of a concept keyboard?A concept keyboard might be used by a fast food restaurant and primary schools4. What are the benefits of using a concept key board?It is much faster for making non-text selections such as menu choices on the till of a fast food outlet. The keyboard is also waterproof which can be useful where there is dirt or the risk of splashes.5. Explain why a purloin often called a pointing deviceA reversal is often called a pointing device because it enables you to control what happens on the screen by moving the mouse on your desk and pointing, clicking and selecting items on the screen.6. take up the difference between a mouse and a tracker ball? The difference between a mouse and a tracker ball are that a trackerball moved against two internal rollers to record the direction that the mouse was being moved in and a mouse uses optical or wireless technology to track mouse movement.7. Which type of input device would you choose if you were going to play a shoot em up computer game?If you were going to play a shoot em up computer game you would use a joystick8. Who is likely to use a Graphics Tablet and why?Graphic s tablets are most likely to be used by graphics designers and illustrators because it is much more natural to draw diagrams with a pencil type implement (the stylus) rather than with a mouse and its very accurate9. Explain briefly how electronic scanners workA scanner works by shining a beam of roost onto the surface of the object that you are scanning. This light is then reflected back onto a sensor that detects the colour of the light. This is then used to build up the digital image.

Core Issues in Crime and Punishment Essay

Jimmy Boyles autobiography A Sense of Freedom (1977) gives a real elicit and honest insight into his vivification of discourtesy and incarceration. The autobiography, written from inside prison, is check to Boyle an attempt to warn offspring people that at that place is not anything glamorous about execration and violence. It gives a full narration of his life from a very new-fangled age, with a detailed insight into his childhood, experiences of petty crime, approved schools and borstal, right by to his adult experiences of more than expert crime, violence and adult prisons, including his interpretation of the Penal System. Reading this autobiography I aimed to remain detached from the reason and seek to create an independent analysis of his criminality. The definition of autobiography according to AskOxford (2010) is an account of a persons life written by that person this paint a pictures that in analysing the authors criminality throughout the defend one should not forget that it is written from the authors perspective and memory and should not be haltn purely on face value. With this in heed I intend to obtain criminological theories to Boyles autobiography with an aim to distinguish which criminological possible action most effectively seeks to explain his criminality. Moreover, in doing this I expect to illuminate the criticisms involve within these theories. annoyance crowd out be defined as an act or deed, which is against the law (Chambers 1998145). Over the past fewer centuries there have been numerous theories try to explain why crime is affordted and the answers to this question ar nonoperational quite sceptical. I intend to consider the key principles of apt prime(prenominal) Theory and how convince it is in explaining Boyles criminality. Rational excerpt Theory is subtract of a contemporary Classical draw close in explaining crime. In order to explain this guess it is important firstly to look into the Classical ap proach. illuminateicism is the eldest of these dickens theories that seeks to explain criminality. It emerged at a time when the naturalistic approach of the social cut theorists was ch exclusivelyenging the previously dominant spiritualist approach to explaining crime and criminal doings (Burke, 200524). It rests on the premiss of free entrust and suggests that criminal legal action is the pass on of rational choice and of the hedonistic impulses of the individual (Newburn, 2007114). It was the two key Classical school theorists Baccaria and Bentham who in the late eighteenth century established the essential components of the Rational Actor model.It suggests that crime is the product of evil and people commit crime through choice because they atomic number 18 simply bad (Newburn, 2007114). A key principle of the classicist approach is to state the law distinctly to the public and punishment should be predictable in order to create deterrence against crime. Baccaria consi dered that criminals owe a debt to society and proposed that punishments should be fixed strictly in proportion to the seriousness of the crime. agree to Baccaria human behavior is essenti each(prenominal)y based on the pleasure pain principle, therefore punishment should reflect that principle and all that are guilty of a particular offence should suffer the selfsame(prenominal) penalty (Burke, 200525).Rational Choice surmise derives from this same school of thought as classicalism. It emerged during the 1980s with the notion that naught gets, governd by the Bentham and the economic utility model. Likewise to Classicism it bases its structure on simple deterrence and retribution principles and overly shares the same assumptions that offenders are essentially rationally calculating actors (Newburn, 2007280). It suggests that offenders strike a cost- upbeat-calculation as whether to commit the crime. If the make headway (e.g. money) out weighs the cost (e.g. prosecution if caught) thence it is likely that they will take the risk and commit the offence. Becker (1968, cited in Newburn, 2007) argued that individuals will commit offences if the expected utility of doing so is positive, and will not do so if it is negative. Cornish and Clark (1985, cited in Newburn, 2007) have had a major influence in developing Rational Choice theory.They suggest that kind of than a simple choice, a sequence of choices have to be made, and that these choices are influenced by a number of social and psychological occurrenceors within the individual. Although this contemporary view still holds almost of the main aspects of Classicism regarding rationality, it has moved in a new direction as it now arguably considers the psychological and sociological effectuate on the offender, an domain of a function that Classicism failed to consider. Rather than suggesting offenders are exactly bad in its story of crime as Classicism does, the Rational Choice theory became the st udy of why people make particular lasts and behave in particular ways under certain(a) circumstances (Newburn, 2007281). According to Cornish and Clark (1985, cited in Newburn, 2007) crime is treated as purposive it is never sensory facultyless. Moreover, Cornish and Clark (1985, cited in Newburn, 2007) suggest that other than material wealth, the benefits of committing such crime may also include excitement, prestige, fun, sexual gratification, defiance or laterality of others.It is moot that throughout reading A Sense Of Freedom (1977) Boyle is certified of all the benefits from crime he receives, a lot of which are mentioned above. From a young age Boyle admits to the excitement experience by stealth and fighting. It is this that makes it evident that he has made rational calculations of what the benefits real will be as a result of crime, for instance stealing will gain him material wealth, reputation/ billet and excitement, much the same as fighting would gain him reput ation and excitement. In this mother wit for Boyle the benefit of committing crime outweighed the cost, which explains his ongoing criminal behavior. However, these benefits received would be an after effect of committing these crimes. What the Rational Choice theory fails to explain is why the need for committing the crime in the first place. Although Rational Choice theory does mention the psychological and sociological aspects that the offender brings with them into certain situations, it bases these aspects on calculating whether to commit the crime or not, alternatively than what sociological or psychological effects would contribute towards committing the crime in the first place i.e. strain, inequality, poverty, consumeed behavior etc.Therefore it still does not seek to explain the individuals social circumstances. In this esthesis according to Newburn (2007) it fails to take sufficient account of the structural conditions within which individual decision-making takes p lace (Newburn, 2007,296) Simply Rational Choice theory does not explain the reasons for committing crime in the first place. It explains the process that takes place when there is an opportunity for crime. According to Newburn (2007) it fails to explain or is unconcerned with the motivation of the offender. What it does seek to explain is the reasons why offenders such as Boyle repeatedly committed crime, such as the benefits i.e. reputation, status and material wealth.The Rational Choice Theory suggests that we would all commit crime if we thought we could get away with it, the reason we do not is because for most the cost outweighs the benefit (Newburn, 2007296). This illuminates the question as to why everyone does not commit crime if everyone has the same rationality? According to Jones (2006) the mingled definitions of rational choice provided by the theorys proponents seems to be too vague and allow for almost any persist of deportment except the most extreme pathological variety. According to Jones (2006417), Gibbs (1989) sums it up when he said if rational behaviour is defined as simply goal-orientated behaviour, then virtually all human behaviour is rational.According to Burke, (2005,44) one of the criticisms with Rational Choice theory is that it is accused of implying a too postgraduate degree of rationality by comparing criminal choices too closely with market-place decisions. The work of Cornish and Clark suggest offenders invariably act in terms of limited or bounded form of rationality (Burke, 200544). In this sense offenders will not be fully aware of all the aspects involved in making the decision to commit crime nor will they have all the facts to make a wise decision. This is still considered to be a rational choice but to a different degree. Therefore, this suggests that offenders abide be categorised separately from law-abiding citizens (Burke, 200544).Although the Rational Choice Theory has played a enormous part in the Government s aim for situational crime prevention within the past forty years, with the notion that nothing works and its concentration on removing/reducing the opportunity for crime, it seems it has not played a large part in understanding why crime is committed nor has it contributed towards developing criminological theory. Gibbons (1994, cited in Walklate, 199838) argues that the Rational Choice theory neither constitutes a new or nor a general explanation of crime since elements of attributing the talent to make choices and decisions to criminals and criminal behaviour are present in a range of criminological perspectives. Akers (1994 cited in Jones, 2006416) suggests Ration Choice theory and deterrence theorists have not acknowledged their debt to Social nurture theory, which he states already allows for the adoption of rational decision-making processes in considering whether to commit crime.As it is apparent after reading Boyles autobiography that he has made a lot of choices to comm it crime throughout his life, it is difficult to apply the Rational Choice theory to specifics as it seems to be a very vague theory, much the same a Classicism. It seems that all his decisions throughout were of a cost-benefit-calculation, in time arguably, this could be said about every decision any offender makes from stealing a pen at work, vandalism to murder and more serious crime. With this in mind I am now going to consider a psychological positive(p) approach in explaining Boyles criminality. Instead of looking at abnormalities of the brain in an attempt to explain his criminality, although there are a number of questions that could be raised when looking at his actions in prison, which could arguably be linked to psychopathic behaviour, in this case it would be beneficial to look into eruditeness behaviour in trying to explain his criminality, with an emphasis on Social Learning thoery.From a young age Boyle explains the area he was brought up in as poor and socially de prived (Boyle, 197721). He tells of his experiences as a young boy as looking at certain areas as more upper class and the people who live in them are toffs which he later admits that they were not, however they had nicer clothes or office than himself therefore they were classed as toffs by him and his peers. He states that his and his friends mother used to call then half boiled toffs and used to mimic their accents (Boyle, 1977,9). He tells of his time going around from a young age stealing with his friends from other peoples unwanted possessions, something that was seen by Boyle as not criminal activity just the done thing. Watching the older men come out the pubs at night time drunk and engaging in violent behaviour (fighting) was one of the activities Boyle and his peers used to do, preferably on weekends. (Boyle, 197715). Although when reading the book Boyles childish endeavours seems rather inline with the norm that boys will be boys and get up to mischief, it seems that t his is where Boyles personality developed.The fact that he was out late notice the fighting outside pubs at the age of 5-6 suggests that his violent behaviour in his adult life could have derived from this. Thus, the pregnant aspects of this are that Boyle was out at a very late time for a young boy, which suggests that there was a significant lack of supervision by his parents. This is one of the reasons for Social Learning theorys explanations as to why some delinquent behaviour takes place, and is one of lack of supervision or poor child rearing can lead to belligerence (something that Boyle implied he was eventually an expert in) (Newburn, 2007165) Boyle tells us from the start that his Father dies when he is a young boy, this is significant because of the lack of parenting in his family regarding supervision but also because of his Fathers reputation of which Boyle states he was aware of, which is of a violent nature. It is evident that these activities from childhood and th roughout his adolescence could be key in explaining his criminality.Behavioural learning theories has its origins in the work of Pavlov and Skinner and their experiments carried out on animals, with their conditioning with stimuli when confronted with different tasks (Burke, 200579). This had a profound repair on the perspective developed when considering criminality. Skinner argued from an operant conditioning perspective that a person moldiness actively respond if they are to learn, whereas Cognitivists place the emphasis on mental rather than physical activity (Burke, 200585). Social Learning theory like the Rational Choice theory shares the same notion that behaviour can be reinforced by rewards and punishment however it emphasises that behaviour can learned by expectations that are learned by watching what happens to other people, in this sense individuals will make a choice as to what is learned and how (Burke, 200585).Tarde (1843-1904, cited in Burke, 2005) suggested that cr ime was simply a normal learned behaviour. He argued that criminals are primary normal people who by accident of birth are brought up in an atmosphere in which they learn crime as a way of life. This leads to my argument as rather than generalising everyone as just rational actors, Boyle was nurtured into crime from a young age. In this sense this takes into love that whilst this theory shares the same focalise regarding rationality it looks closer into why crime is committed in the first place.Albert Bandura had a major impact on Social Learning theory, especially with his demonstration of the Bobo doll experiment. The basis of the theory is that the learned behaviour is a combination of the physical acts and how to perform them (skills) and the attitudes and mental understanding necessary to the behaviour (including social skills, morals and choice) (Williams, 2008289). In this sense criminal behaviour can be learnt through practice, watching others or engaging in the environme nt (Williams, 2008289). According to Williams the level of social skills, which the individuals have learnt, may be connected to the amount of crime they perform.Bandura (cited in Newburn, 2007153) points out that Social Learning theory includes a consideration of motivation and the three types involved, these are external reinforcement-from the environment, vicarious reinforcement-from observing others and self reinforcement-as a result of pickings pleasure or pride from ones own actions. According to Bandura (cited in Newburn, 2007153) in this sense we are likely to be influenced by others especially if they are of a high status, which is referred to as models. It is arguable that Boyle learnt his violent behaviour from hearing stories about his Father to watching fighting outside the pubs, in this sense he idolised this behaviour. It is stated in the book that in the book Boyles peers stole some money on a particular occasion. Boyle states that he did not want any of the money wh en his friends were share-out it out. However, he did let them pay for him to get in the cinema. This aloud Boyle to receive the benefits of this criminal act, which arguably conditioned him for the future, as this moral decision did not last and before long Boyle was participating in more theft himself. This is a case of learned behaviour from his peers. This shows that not all models have to be of high status, but behaviour can be learned through delinquent peers and what is accepted within a group (Newburn, 2007165).The Social Learning theory therefore, can be applied to how Boyle became more involved in criminal activity. According to Newburn (2007) Ron Akers and his study of crime, suggests that crime is a result of operant conditioning or imitation. non only did Boyle involve himself in theft and violent activity at school, but also carried on through his adolescent life which lead him into Approved schools and Borstal. This is where Boyle states that he made a lot of contac ts. He referred to these institutions as University for crime (Boyle, 197773). This suggest that Boyle believed himself that mixing with people of a more higher criminal status played a significant part in extending his criminality. According to Jones (2006415) for persistent offenders, the periodic reinforcement of their values by other criminals has been sufficient to outweigh the inhibitory effects of punishment.It is clear that whilst covering only a small area of Psychological Positivism with an emphasis on Social Learning theory, it seems to be a good explanation to Boyles Criminality. What this theory fails to explain is to some extent the social deprivation that Boyle experienced. It does focus on some areas that the social circumstances had on Boyles personality, however it emphasises on modelling his personality from influence of his peers and fictional character models. This does seem to be effective in explaining why Boyle became violent and engaged in theft, however it fails to explain why he was influenced in this way in the first place and illuminates the question as to why are people around him acting in this way?According to Howitt (2009) suggesting that people learn their violent and criminal actions from others is a weak argument, unless violence and crime are entirely genetically convey then inevitably they must be learnt socially in some way. In this sense according to Howitt (2009) any explanation of violence and crime in terms of learning is not in particular helpful unless the conditions under which it is learnt can be specified. Violence and crime are not the exclusive nitty-gritty by which goals are achieved. A variety of tactics are involved in achieving goals working rather than stealing to get a television set being a simple example. As work is a major form of modeled behavior, how can we explain why there is any crime at all if it is simply through social learning? In this sense the Social Learning theorys weak ability to exp lain under what circumstances criminal behavior will or will not be learnt means that it has limited explanatory power (Howitt, 200978).Due to decreed statistics on crime there is a common belief that poverty has a significant role to play in underlying offending (Jones, 2006151). The work from Durkheim focused on how the organization of society can drive people into breaking its rules (Jones, 2006157). Durkheim thought that some crime is normal in society and it would be impossible to imagine a society without crime (Jones, 2006157). Derkheims concentration on anomie and the sociological perspective of crime had a profound effect on the development of criminological theory as he realised that crime is a contemporary social construct rather than a set of universal values or the reflection of intrinsic evils (Jones, 2006161). This gave rise to Mertons theory on strain. Derkheim cut anomie as created by sudden changes in society, whereas Merton anomie applies to disadvantages of the lower classes. This is the area I am going to concentrate on next in explaining Boyles criminality.

Organizational Change Plan Essay

Electronic health Record or EHR, is an electronic enroll of patient health information that includes demographics, progress notes, medications, vital signs, sometime(prenominal) medical history, and any other pertinent data that relates to a patients health record (Himss, 2012-2013). Electronic Health Records make clinical work flow more telling and efficient as easily as provides monetary incentives from Medic atomic number 18 and Medicaid for those brass instruments that implement the use of these electronic records.CPOE, also known as Computerized doc send Entry, is a system utilized by physicians to enter in patient parades electronically. It is a safer and more effective way for doctors to enter orders for their patients and by using it, an composition pass on receive monetary benefits from Medicargon and Medicaid. win over is historic to any organization in order for that business to keep up with its competitors and to increase as healthy as improve the products a nd services that it provides to its customers.Technology plays a big role in the careens of an organization because engineering science is becoming more and more of a means of parley whether it be in the form of communication with cell phones to a physician communicating what orders he wants for a patient by using CPOE. The organization that I work for is in conduct of implementing Computerized Physician Order Entry in order to certify to and meet the requirements for Stage 2 for purposeful Use. The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services has an EHR Incentive program that provides organizations monetary incentives for meeting sealed requirements through the use of electronic health records.Their Meaningful Use requirements are split up into stages and in order to meet Stage 2, organizations suck up to implement certain requirements with the first being to use Computerized Physician Order Entry (Woodcock, 2010). Organizational and individual barriers such as miss of involv ement from employees, lack of communication, affright and stress spate cause issues when it comes to implementing a careen such as CPOE. According to Barriers To Change (2007), Involving employees as soon as possible in the dislodge do work and letting them create as more of the multifariousness as possible, is key to a successful change effort. The organization that I work for has seek to involve the physicians in the building process of CPOE from the beginning. We stomach asked their input on what order sets would be reliable for them to nurse to make ordering easier and realise let them practice in the Meditech Test environment by entering orders on fake patients we flummox gotten really good feedback from the doctors that chose to come and it has helped with the change process. Inadequate communication is often the reason behind barriers to change and people being receptive to the change.Many people in the infirmary did not know what CPOE was communicating with them from the beginning about the system and what it actually is may have helped with the introduction of the system to the organization. Our hospital goes LIVE with CPOE September 24, 2013 and although administration was asked many months prior to this to inform the hospital of what was coming, most employees knew nothing about it until they came to the training classes that were held to show them how orders would be entered when we went up with CPOE.When it comes to change, certain details need to be shared with employees because they need to know why this change is occurring, what this change means for the organization itself, and what the change means for them and how it will affect their job(s). People often fear change, especially if they are not a part of it or aware of it. If employees understand why the change is occurring then they are more presumable to accept it. CPOE peck be a big change for an organization and can cause fear. explicate to employees what CPOE is, how it will improve patient safety in terms of legibility, and how it will create a damp workflow for physicians and staff.According to Borkowski (2005), stress can certainly be increased due to change it can create a physical as well as a psychological response in the work force. CPOE can put a lot of stress on physicians and condescending staff because their unanimous workflow has to change learning a new routine of working needs encouragement and support from everyone. Factors that may influence the change could include content issues, process issues, contextual issues, and individual differences. Content issues are specific to each organization and refer to the change that is being employ, in this case CPOE. These content issues can occur in an attempt to meet demands such as government regulations or changes in proficient demands (Factors Influencing Organizational Change Efforts, n.d., p. 762).In the case of the organization that I work for they are implementing CPOE in order to meet the demands of Meaningful Use Stage 2 government requirements. Process issues are the actions that are taken during the implementation of the change and involve open, honest communication with employees about the change (Factors Influencing Organizational Change Efforts, n.d., p. 762). The organization should be honest with its employees about what CPOE is and why it is needed or why it will be a good change for the organization. They should also be efficient and express confidence that the change will be successful knowing that administration is behind the change is an important part of being confident and demo employees that the organization is ready for this change (Factors Influencing Organizational Change Efforts, n.d., p. 763).Contextual issues deals with external factors that usually cant be changed and indwelling factors that can be. External factors would include government regulations, as stated before, meeting Meaningful Use Stage 2 requirements. Internal factors would be attitudes or feelings about the change, lack of resources, or lack of knowledge about technology. If attitudes are negative coming from administration then employees are going to have a negative attitude towards the change as well. Administration or those implementing the change need to have a positive attitude and positive outlook on CPOE and express to employees that CPOE is going to improve workflow as well as patient safety when it comes to order entry.According to Factors Influencing Organizational Change Efforts (n.d.) organizations have a variety of individuals who have different attitudes and personalities that could influence the reaction and commitment to change. Individual differences can have a big impact on the implementation and the acceptance of CPOE attitudes need to be positive and back up and communication needs to be open in order to have successful implementation of computerized physician order entry.Factors influencing organizational readiness mainly come from individuals themselves who are not ready or who do not want to accept the change. Individual readiness for change is when someone is open and willing to change if the person is not open or willing then this affects their readiness for change. It seems as though the physicians are the ones who are the least ready for the change from paper charting to CPOE. Physicians are used to writing orders on paper, gravid communicatory orders or giving telephone orders and with CPOE this all changes.CPOE requires physicians to do their own ordering so verbal and telephone orders are supposed to be used as little as possible. Their readiness to change from ordering on paper to electronic ordering is not very high because they like the flexibleness of being able to tell nurses to place orders for them and with CPOE this process is supposed to stop. Kurt Lewins change model of unfreezing, change and refreezing relates to the proposed change from placing orders on paper to electronic ord er entry. Unfreezing is an important step in the change process because it deals with communicating to employees about the change. Inform staff what CPOE is, why the hospital is making the change to CPOE and what CPOE means for the employees. Change deals with making the actual change from physicians ordering on paper to placing their own orders electronically.The refreezing stage is when the change has been implemented and accepted the change has been accepted and the effects of the change are being monitored (Borkowski, 2005). Resources for the implementation of CPOE involved internal as well as external persons. Training will include superusers who will be accessible to assist staff on the units when the change is made. The Clinical Informatics team will be procurable extra hours to provide coverage on the CPOE Go Live day. Our facility uses Meditech so there will be Meditech consultants that come to assist us with the Go Live preparation of CPOE. Our physicians and nurses wil l have the coverage and help that they need with the implementation of Computerized Physician Order Entry.ResourcesBorkowski, N. (2005). Organizational Behavior in Health Care. Retrieved from The University of genus Phoenix eBook Collection database. Factors Influencing Organizational Change Efforts. (n.d.). Journal of Organizational Change Management, 20(6), 761-773. Retrieved from http//www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/journals.htm?articleid=1630997&show=abstract HiMSS. (2012-2013). Retrieved from http//www.himss.org/library/ehr/?navItemNumber=13261 Woodcock, E. (2010, September). . , 31(9), 91-92.Retrieved from http//search.proquest.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/docview/757065487

Guidelines Essay

This article was created by Jocelyn Howard and Jae Major with the purpose of helping teachers, who fixed to produce their birth teaching squares they need to observe just about advantages and disadvantages, important factors and rule of thumbs. These aspects help them to deliver a coherent convention for teaching materials. First, different advantages and disadvantages be examined why teacher might choose to design their knowledge materials. These are some advantages contextualization it is generic it means they do not able-bodied to take in consideration the erudition environment.The coursebook do not aim any specific group of learners, particular culture or educational context. Everybody is able to use that coursebook. There are a lack commercial materials and cost force the teacher-produce their own material as best option for both students and school. Another advantages is individuals needs, it refers to different aspects or needs of learners that essential be taken i n consideration by teacher-producer at the moment to create material. They are front language skills, multi-cultural groups, experiences, level of English and why they are learning?Also, to increase motivation and knowledge, engagement in learning, freedom are some aspects to take in consideration in personalization, another advantage. In contrast, the disadvantages for teachers who decided to produce materials are organized in three aspects such as organization, quality and time. Organization refers to viscidity and clear progression, physical organization and storage material and clear direction. If there are not some order in principles and clearly well-organized system will be difficult to locate them for future materials use.Second, factors to consider when plan materials learners teachers find out information about learners needs. afterwards that you are able to create the material. In addition, the students learning needs skill, preferences learning style, literacy level, interests and purpose of learning English as a second language. Also, curriculum and content it must include the goals and objectives to keep close for going back and take care it. Another important factor is the resources and facilities teachers must be realistic they need to adapt their materials to the environment where they work.After this, personal confidence and competence it refers to the skills, knowledge and attitudes, copyright compliance you must dupe to give ascribe when use resources of internet, and time organized the place that you use for working are another main factors. Third, guidelines for designing effective English teaching materials in general they provide a coherent design in materials which emphasize the learning skills and knowledge. ELT materials should be contextualized (guideline1) the curriculum is to give address, specific individuals needs and the proposition is meaningful.And then, in a real communication process, professor must be sure the mate rials they develop have a clear purpose (guideline 2). guidepost 3 teachers should teach how to learn, help to take advantages and opportunities for self-evaluation. So, metalanguage (out of the class) is an example of these opportunities. Besides, guideline 4 materials make the student focus on form. Guideline 5 produce materials and incorporate much than one skill. Guideline 6 it is not only written material, its also visual and spoken. Guideline 7 the materials must be connected between what you did and what will you do.Guideline 8 physical appearance of materials must be attractive to the learners. Guideline 9 the instructions must be clear and well-heeled to follow by learners. Guideline 10 the materials must be adapted to the activities and the learners. In summary, when teachers make the finality of creating their own materials they should be taken in account the different advantages and disadvantages presenting in this text. Also, they need to consider the factors and g uidelines which provide them the most important point for developing their own teaching materials.

Joint Venture Essay

Joint gauges are business ventures formed by two or to a greater extent companies to achieve aspecific, but limited, objective. An example would be the development of an offshore oil field, where a group of companies combines to seduce and operate a drilling platform and related pipeline. The project is owned equally by the assort enterprises and its focal point could be controlled either by one of the collaborationists or by a separate direction could be controlled either by one of the partners or by a separate management institution established just for the project. The venture may be organised as a partnership ,a peck ,a joint-stock company or some some other legal form, and it can contunieindefinetly.The rational for a joint venture is usually to diversify risk among the members and or to combine expertise and assets that none of the participants provide alone. Roy L.Crum,Eugene F.Brigham& joel.F.Houston.(2005)Fundamentals of international finance.1st edn.THE ADVANTAGES OF common VENTURES* Access to expertise and contacts in local markets, each partner agrees to ajoint venture to gain access to the other partners skills and resources. Typically the international partner contributes financial resources, technology or products. The local partner provides the skills and knowledge required for managing a business in its country.* Reduced market and political risks* Economies of scale by pooling skills and resources(resulting in e.g. lower marketing costs)* May avoid local tariffs and non-tariffs barriers* Shared risk of failure* by chance better relations with national governments through having a local partner.THE DISDVANTAGE OF JOINT VENTURES* Objectives of the respective partners may be incompatible ,resulting in conflicts* Contributions to joint ventures can become disproportionate* Los of control over foreign operations* Completion might overburden a companys staff* Partners may become locked into ache term investments from which it is difficu lt to withdraw * Cultural differences may result in possible differences in management culture among participating firms * Problems of management structures and dual parent staffing of joint ventures. * Transfer pricing problems as practised pass between partners Sven hollensen.(2004)global marketing(adecision-oriented approach).3rd edn.

Econ Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Econ - Essay Exampleics.This on garment assumes that when businesses fluctuate, then this is a clear edition of the fluctuation in the outputs growth rate instead of a change in the level of output.This statement implies that economics is a misery in that there is a very remarkable of interconnection of markets and they respond in a very surprising manner to the changes in preferences and resources. For example, if a reduction of a product occurs, the price of the good goes up and the consumers get an incentive to consume less of the commodity while the suppliers get an incentive to discover more. It is very surprising that increase in the price of superstar commodity can be the reason of another commoditys price going up. Therefore, this approach in economics tends to let people understand the invisible side in economics in order to understand the economics world.Keynes a very popular economist stated that he would resembling to steer the economy while Hayek articulates that h e would like to set the economy free. Keynes, had a very besotted believe and supported that during the points of depression or during recession in an economy, the administration should spend during the depression period as a way to increase the aggregate demand and to lower the levels of unemployment. He believed that during the period of recession, the regimen should buy security bonds in order to reduce aggregate demand since this reduces the flow of money amongst the citizens. By doing this, Keynes felt that government spending is a good way of controlling the markets.Hayek, a fellow economist, criticized what Keynes argued that government spending should regulate the demand in the market by arguing that he preferred to set the market in the economy to operate freely. Hayek argued that the market should operate freely without any intervention and be itself without intervention too. His argument was that intervention by either the government spending or the policies of the c entral depone in effort to