Cultural Shock Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Cultural Shock - Research Paper Example Social norms and communication characteristics are the basic element of the expectancy violation theory. Expectancy Violation Theory sees communication as the medium through which people exchange information with one another. Communication can also be used to violate the expectations of another person as either negative or positive depending upon the link between the two people. However, experts also explain this theory as in communicating with others; people generally have an expectation of the way the other person will react verbally or non-verbally. The Expectancy Violation Theory assesses the way in which we react to someone’s non-verbal behavior (Kunda and Thagard, 1996). Cultural shock is when people or a person enters into a new culture when they migrate to a new place or experience new people around them. The difficulty they have in adjusting in that culture and amongst the people is known as cultural shock. Expectancy Violation Theory closely related to cultural shock as the people who are new to the society will face difficulties in keeping expectations from the people as to what their reaction will be. As the behaviors are new, there will be vague predictions about the expectations of the people on the communications made whether verbal or non-verbal (Burgoon, 1993). When having a communication with someone’s, the reaction of the person can either be positive or negative, which means that either the person will smile or will show a rude reaction (Marques, 1990). The theory examines that the people carry expectations when they interact with others and these expectations are from the culture or the individuals in that culture. They make predictions about the non-verbal communications, and there are times when their expectations violate (Jussim et al, 1987). Personal space refers to a space that has to be maintained while interacting

Police Training Essay Example for Free

Police Training Essay Nowadays professional training is paid more attention as it is one of the best ways to increase job commitment and enhance performance. I think that all police officers should have free access to formal and informal courses, seminars devoted to violent death investigation, interrelations, and criminal laws. The training programs should cover also the principle of supervision and civil liability. Training plays crucial role in today’s police work because training ensures not only organizational efficiency, but also increases effectiveness and productivity of all police departments. It goes without saying that it is hardly possible to except effective work from untrained police officers. Moreover, community doesn’t feel safe if they realize that their police officers aren’t skillful and experienced enough to defend them when necessary. Nevertheless, state funding isn’t enough to solve training dilemma because of lack of money assigned to support training programs. Without money and proper funding it would be difficult to solve the problem. The purpose of training is to promote occupational and professional development of police department through specialized job-related programs. Nevertheless, training differs significantly from education because training is so-called study in the process. Education provides only theoretical background of the particular situations, whereas training develops practical skills and acquirements in real situations. However, I think that training is the second step after education as the officer should firstly realize the aspects of actions and only then should master his skills. Harry More defines training as â€Å"something like an inchoate crime†. He means that training is continuous process and can’t be ever fully accomplished. Training is always a process. Education provides knowledge and training applies it to specific situations. The goals of trainings are: To improve police officer’s performances and job commitment; To develop the sense of responsibility in police officers. It is necessary to underline that training is designed to help individuals to cope better with challenging duties and responsibilities. Simply saying, training helps to perform job better. Training is claimed to be unique because it suggests unity within particular organization. According to More and Miller, modern police training is based on the following philosophical foundations: Positive action is ensured when accompanied by acquired skills and motivation; Learning process depends not only motivation and personal abilities, but also on the instructional methods, behavior of the trainers and the climate within department; Training is considered tripartite responsibility; Training is continuous process requiring constant updating of skills and knowledge. Finally, it is important to document all formal and informal training because it helps to identify what type of training is actually needed. Documenting is defined as task analysis aimed at ensuring the relevance of training. While documenting it becomes possible to identify the tasks performed by the person who holds the position. Also documenting ensures easy assessment of training programs. Tasks analysis helps police officers to determine whether the training program is professional enough to provide skills and knowledge required for particular job. In conclusion it is necessary to note that training develops the following professional skills in police officers: interpersonal communication skills, perception and awareness, decision-making ad critical thinking, adaptability and definitiveness, oral and written communication skills.

GCSE English Directors Notes on Act 4 of The Crucible by Arthur Miller

GCSE English Directors Notes on Act 4 of The Crucible by Arthur Miller As the Director of this play, I feel it is my responsibility to offer you advice on playing the character of John Proctor. I'm sure you'll find it may help you to understand the character if you are aware of the social and historical context of the play. The play is set in 1692 and is based upon the outbreak of accusations in Salem, Massachusetts. Arthur Miller wrote the play The Crucible, using the 17th-century case of witch trials (and fictionalising it) to comment on a 20th-century phenomenon-the hunting of communists as if they were witches. In 17th century Salem the inhabitants feared witchcraft, like America feared communism, both were exaggerated and both communities overreacted to an insignificant threat to their stability of life. Arthur Miller had always had a personal interest in the Salem Witch trials, but at the time he was writing the play, America was in the middle of the McCarthy political "Witch Hunt". Miller himself was called up before a committee for signing petitions, and he began to notice many similarities between the two trials, such as the naming of names and public confessions. This has meant that his play is seen as a political parable. In 1692, the colonists in Salem were Puritans and very protective of their particular religion and would tolerate no other. They felt threatened by those who were different, witches were the most extreme in difference to their way of life and so everything from death to a poor harvest was blamed on them. Proctor is presented at the beginning of the play as a stern, harsh-tongued man, however, he is well respected in the village. We soon learn of his affair with Abigail, his servant, who was dismissed because Proctor's wife found out about the affair. Proctor is involved in a disagreement about land and when he returns home in the evening it becomes apparent that he sees straight through the accusations of witchcraft being thrown about the village. Abby still loves John Proctor but her feelings for him are not returned. Proctor's wife Elizabeth is found to be pregnant but some doubt this, but Proctor says his wife would never lie. Proctor convinces Mary to go to court and tell the court that it is all fraud, but Mary becomes frightened and says Proctor is the one who has allegiance to the Devil; Hale who clearly doubt... ...The court collapses shortly afterward, undone by the refusal of its victims to propagate lies. Another one of the plays themes relevant to Act 4 is Reputation. , Proctor seeks to keep his good name from being spoilt. Early in the play, he has a chance to put a stop to the girls' accusations, but his desire to preserve his reputation keeps him from testifying against Abigail. At the end of the play, however, Proctor's desire to keep his good name leads him to make the choice not to make a false confession and to die without signing his name to an untrue statement. "I have given you my soul; leave me my name!" he cries to Danforth. By refusing to ruin his name, he redeems himself for his earlier sins and dies with integrity, another theme of the play. In conclusion, you should reflect in your representation of Proctor the many changes he goes through in this Act. From ashamed, to righteous as he denies the court a false confession. Proctor is honest and upright, but has made one mistake, which confessing to cost him his life. He is very proud and his integrity is very important to him, I wish you the very best of luck in playing this complex character on stage.

How Does the Public Sector Work? Essay -- Public Management

If you don't understand how the public sector is supposed to work, how can you ensure that it is working? An easy definition of public administration is, â€Å"the implementation of government policies† (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2010), or, â€Å"the implementation of public policy† (Infoplease.com, 1997). While policies and procedures seem to be continuously up for debate, it should be noted that, an informed public are the only sure-fire way to ensure that the public sector stays on track with meeting the needs of its constituents. People, as a whole, tend to appreciate good leaders. â€Å"It is the task of a leader to connect people with purpose† (Blunt, 2007). Why does this help us in the public sector? To paraphrase J.D. Straussman, leaders must have a vision, â€Å"establish direction† with regards to that vision, â€Å"align people by creating an environment of cooperation†, and â€Å"motivate and inspire members of the organization† (Straussman, pg. 4). Generally, public sector's have not yet embraced the positive aspects of what leadership skills can bring to their organizations. One wonders, what is so wrong with vision or inspiring and motivating people? Motivating employees should be one of most important aspects of leadership in the public sector. Motivated employees often show higher productivity levels than others. Often confused with leadership is the role of management in an organization. First tier management skills are highly coveted within the public sector. These skills are planning, organizing, directing and controlling (Reh, 2009) and are mostly built in to any and all management models in the public sector itself. Second tier management skills build on the leadership skills mentioned above, such as, motivation, training ... ...illsPyramid.htm Becketts, K. (2010). Four major functions of public administration: an overview. Retrieved from https://elearning.riosalado.edu/content/pad/pad101/pad101_INTER_0000_v5/PDFs/L2_Content.pdf American Society of Public Administration, . (2006). Code of ethics. Retrieved from http://www.aspanet.org/scriptcontent/index_codeofethics.cfm Bai, M. (2010, December 16). Is ‘triangulation’ just another word for the politics of the possible?. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/17/us/politics/17bai.html?partner=rss&emc=rss Goble, K. (2010, December 17). Top state issues for 2011 revealed. Retrieved from http://www.landlinemag.com/todays_news/Daily/2010/Dec10/121310/121710-05.shtml Americans for Fair Taxation, . (2010). Frequently asked questions - answers. Retrieved from http://www.fairtax.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_faq_answers How Does the Public Sector Work? Essay -- Public Management If you don't understand how the public sector is supposed to work, how can you ensure that it is working? An easy definition of public administration is, â€Å"the implementation of government policies† (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2010), or, â€Å"the implementation of public policy† (Infoplease.com, 1997). While policies and procedures seem to be continuously up for debate, it should be noted that, an informed public are the only sure-fire way to ensure that the public sector stays on track with meeting the needs of its constituents. People, as a whole, tend to appreciate good leaders. â€Å"It is the task of a leader to connect people with purpose† (Blunt, 2007). Why does this help us in the public sector? To paraphrase J.D. Straussman, leaders must have a vision, â€Å"establish direction† with regards to that vision, â€Å"align people by creating an environment of cooperation†, and â€Å"motivate and inspire members of the organization† (Straussman, pg. 4). Generally, public sector's have not yet embraced the positive aspects of what leadership skills can bring to their organizations. One wonders, what is so wrong with vision or inspiring and motivating people? Motivating employees should be one of most important aspects of leadership in the public sector. Motivated employees often show higher productivity levels than others. Often confused with leadership is the role of management in an organization. First tier management skills are highly coveted within the public sector. These skills are planning, organizing, directing and controlling (Reh, 2009) and are mostly built in to any and all management models in the public sector itself. Second tier management skills build on the leadership skills mentioned above, such as, motivation, training ... ...illsPyramid.htm Becketts, K. (2010). Four major functions of public administration: an overview. Retrieved from https://elearning.riosalado.edu/content/pad/pad101/pad101_INTER_0000_v5/PDFs/L2_Content.pdf American Society of Public Administration, . (2006). Code of ethics. Retrieved from http://www.aspanet.org/scriptcontent/index_codeofethics.cfm Bai, M. (2010, December 16). Is ‘triangulation’ just another word for the politics of the possible?. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/17/us/politics/17bai.html?partner=rss&emc=rss Goble, K. (2010, December 17). Top state issues for 2011 revealed. Retrieved from http://www.landlinemag.com/todays_news/Daily/2010/Dec10/121310/121710-05.shtml Americans for Fair Taxation, . (2010). Frequently asked questions - answers. Retrieved from http://www.fairtax.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_faq_answers

Features of Private Payer and Consumer Essay

A HMO is accredited by the state. For its more abject costs, the HMO has the most rigorous guidelines and the minutest alternative of suppliers. Its extremities are allotted to principal care doctors and must utilize network suppliers to be addressed, omit within exigencies. HMO were primitively planned to address all canonical services for a yearly bounty and visit co-pays. A health maintenance organization is coordinated throughout a business model. The model is based on how the terms of the correspondence link the supplier and the plan. Within all, nevertheless, enrollers must see health maintenance organization suppliers within order to be addressed. A group HMO foreshortens with more than one doctor group. Within some plans, health maintenance organizations members receive medical services within health maintenance organization owned facilities from suppliers who cultivate only for that HMO. Within others, members inflict the supplier’s facilities, and the suppliers can a lso treat nonmember patients. IPA (Independent or Individual Practice Association) type of health maintenance organization is an affiliation made by doctors with individually owned practices who foreshorten united to supply care for HMO members. A health maintenance organization compensates managed fees for medical services to the Independent Practice Association. The IPA in turn compensates its doctor members, either through a fee or capitates rate. Suppliers may link more than one IPA and generally see nonmember patients. A point-of-service plan is intercrossed of PPO and HMO networks. Members may prefer from a primary or secondary network. The primary network is HMO-like and the secondary network is generally a PPO network. Like HMOs, POS plans appoint a yearly premium and co-pay for office inflicts. A point-of –service may be integrated as a tiered plan, for exemplar, with dissimilar rates for particularly assigned suppliers, veritable participating suppliers, and out-of-network suppliers. Indemnity (insurance) call for deductible, premium, and coinsurance defrayments. They generally address seventy to eighty percent of costs for comprehended benefits after deductibles are assembled. Many have some managed care ch aracteristics since remunerators contend for employer’s contracts and attempt to assure costs. CDHP (consumer-driven or consumer-directed health plans) aggregate two elements which are (1) a-high deductible health plan and (2) one or more tax-preferable savings accounts that the patient; which is the consumer  addresses. The two plans cultivate together: The high-deductible health plans addresses tragedy losses, and the savings account devotes out of the pocket or unveiled disburses. CDHP authorize consumers to deal their usage of healthcare services and products. CDHPs decimate most co-pays coverage and agitate responsibility for managing the dollars within the savings account to mortars. CDHPs promote individuals to seek routine well-care gains. For the CDHP approach to cultivate, then, consumers must be capable to detect precise healthcare data. A health reimbursement account is a medical reimbursement plan set up and funded through an employer. Health Reimbursement Account are generally offered to employees with health plans that have high deductibles. Employees may submit claims to the HRA to be compensated back for out of pocket medical disbursements. Some troupes extend FSA, which is known as Flexible Savings (Spending) Accounts that augment employees other health insurance coverage. Employees have the alternative of putting pretax dollars from their remunerators within the FSA; they can then utilize the fund to compensate for sure dependent and medical care expenses. The FSA might be utilized within one of two ways. Within some companies, the employer has to file a claim with the plan after compensating a bill. The weakness of an FSA as equated with an HAS is that fresh dollars go back to the employer underneath the â€Å"use it or lose it† rule at the conclusion of the year. Employees must attempt to anticipate their years disbursements to avert either underfunding or overfunding the account. References: Valerius, J., Bayes, N., Newby, C., & Seggern, J. (2008).Medical insurance: An integrated claims process approach (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. U.S. Treasurer’s Office. http://www.treasury.gov.resource-center/faqs/Taxes/Pages/Health-Savings-Accounts.aspx The Regence BlueCross BlueShield of Oregon. http://www.regence.com/

Isolationism and its use within US foreign policy essays

Isolationism and it's use within US foreign policy essays Isolationism and its Use Within U.S Foreign Policy 1. Isolationism is a term associated with U.S foreign policy in the 1920s and 30s, Isolationism examples can occur in economic situations or politics. The United States was seen as an isolationist country, this was because of its economic polices and also politics. The United states was considered isolationist because of involvement without commitment - "advantages without obligations" as it was described. This meant the U.S would help be involved in world affairs but not act by interfering or having alliances with other countries. The republicans saw isolationism as a way of keeping the US as sovereign free and at peace. An example of isolationism was the 4 way naval power treaty where the US was involved but did not commit its self. The isolationist view is often interpreted as having no ties or any official economic or political alliances with other countries. 2. World war 1 had ended leaving America in a position of great financial importance, this put America far above Europe economically. In the 1920s the USA were still recovering from the war, the effects of the war meant that the power of the government had increased exceptionally. The power was almost too dangerous so liquidation of assets had begun. The railroads had all been sold back and railroad consolidation had been encouraged by the government. The parts of the government dealing with war time administration had been partly removed as they were not needed. The war still left a greater number of federal employees as many areas the government had acquired. The war led to increased involvement with Germany over Germanys finances after the loss of world war 1. America and European countries damaged by the war wanted reparations from the German government. When Germany could not afford to pay the counties involved the U.S helped them structu...

Interesting Quotes From Novel Alas, Babylon

Interesting Quotes From Novel 'Alas, Babylon' Pat Franks classic novel Alas, Babylon  is filled with provocative quotes. Published in  1959, the book  takes place in Florida and is  centered around the Braggs. One of the first novels of the nuclear age, Alas, Babylon has a distinctly  post-apocalyptic bent. With this roundup of quotes, categorized by chapter, familiarize yourself with the prose that made this novel so unique.   Chapters 1-2 Urgent you meet me at Base Ops McCoy noon today. Helen and children flying to Orlando tonight. Alas Babylon. (Ch. 1)Standing afar off for the fear of her torment, saying, Alas, alas, that great city Babylon, that mighty city! For in one hour is thy judgment come. (Ch. 2)Sure. Time-on-target. You dont fire everything at the same instant. You shoot it so it all arrives on target at the same instant.  (Ch. 2) Chapters 4-5 Peewee may be a mouse aboard ship, but hes a tiger in a Tiger. If I sent him up with orders to shoot down the moon, hed try. (Ch. 4)So here comes our local Paul Revere, he greeted Randy. What are you trying to do, frighten my wife and daughter to death?  (Ch. 4)Ben Franklin, staring to the south, said, I dont see any mushroom cloud. Dont they always have a mushroom cloud?  (Ch. 5)Edgar hesitated. To refuse to cash government savings bonds was fiduciary sacrilege so awful that the possibility never before had entered his head. Yet here he was, faced with it. No, he decided, we dont cash any bonds. Tell those individuals that we wont cash any bonds until we find out where the government stands, or if.  (Ch. 5) Chapters 6-9 As Chief Executive of the United States, and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces, I hereby declare a state of unlimited national emergency until such time as new elections are held, and Congress reconvenes. (Ch. 6)Whos winning? Nobodys winning. Cities are dying and ships are sinking and aircraft is going in, but nobodys winning.  (Ch. 6)In four months, Randy said, weve regressed four thousand years. More, maybe. Four thousand years ago the Egyptians and Chinese were more civilized than Pistolville is right now. Not only Pistolville. Think what must be going on in those parts of the country where they dont even have fruit and pecans and catfish.  (Ch. 8)I think most of us sensed this truth, but we could not accept it. You see, no matter how well we understood the truth it was necessary that the Kremlin understand it too. It takes two to make a peace but only one to make a war. So all we could do, while vowing not to strike first, was line up our lead soldiers. (Ch. 9)It was a w olf, Randy said. It wasnt a dog any longer. In times like these dogs can turn into wolves. You did just right, Ben. Here, take back your gun. (Ch. 9) Chapters 10-13 No. A company under martial law. So far as I know Im the only active Army Reserve officer in town so I guess its up to me.  (Ch. 10)The end of the corn and exhaustion of the citrus crop had been inevitable. Armadillos in the yams was bad luck, but bearable. But without fish and salt their survival was in doubt. (Ch. 12)Ben Franklin was credited with discovering a new source of food, and was a hero. Peyton was only a girl, fit for sewing, pot washing, and making beds.  (Ch. 12)It was proof that the government of the United States still functioned. It was also useful as toilet paper. Next day, ten leaflets would buy an egg, and fifty a chicken. It was paper, and it was money. (Ch. 13)We won it. We really clobbered em! Harts eyes lowered and his arms drooped. He said, Not that it matters. (Ch. 13)

Disinformation Definition

Disinformation Definition Disinformation is the deliberate and purposeful distribution of false information. The term is generally used to describe an organized campaign to deceptively distribute untrue material intended to influence public opinion. In recent years, the term has become especially associated with the spread of fake news on social media as a strategy of negative political campaigning. Key Takeaways: Disinformation The terms disinformation and misinformation are often used interchangeably, but they are not synonymous. Disinformation requires that the message be false, distributed purposefully, and with the goal of altering public opinion.The strategic use of disinformation can be traced back to the Soviet Union in the 1920s, where it was known as dezinformatsiya.In English, the term was first used in the 1950s, referring to Cold War disinformation campaigns.Social media has exacerbated the impact of disinformation campaigns. Definition of Disinformation A key component of the definition of disinformation is the intention of the person or entity creating the message. Disinformation is distributed with the specific purpose of misleading the public. The false information is meant to impact society by swaying the opinions of the members of the audience. The term disinformation is said to be derived from a Russian word, dezinformatsiya, with some accounts holding that Joseph Stalin coined it. It is generally accepted that the Soviet Union pioneered the deliberate use of false information as a weapon of influence in the 1920s. The word remained relatively obscure for decades and was used mainly by military or intelligence professionals, not the general public, until the 1950s. Disinformation vs. Misinformation An important distinction to make is that disinformation does not mean misinformation. Someone can spread misinformation innocently by saying or writing things that are untrue while believing them to be true. For example, a person sharing a news report on social media may commit an act of misinformation if the source turns out to unreliable and the information incorrect. The specific person who shared it acts as a result of misinformation if he or she believes it to be true. On the other hand, deliberately distributing false material with the purpose of generating outrage or chaos in society, essentially as a political dirty trick, would rightfully be referred to as spreading disinformation. Following the same example, the agent who created the false information in the unreliable source is guilty of creating and spreading disinformation. The intention is to cause a reaction in the public opinion based on the false information that he or she created. What Is a Disinformation Campaign? Disinformation is often part of a larger effort, such as a campaign, plan, or agenda. It may take advantage of well-established facts while tweaking details, omitting context, blending falsehoods, or distorting circumstances. The goal is to make the disinformation believable in order to reach the target audience. Multiple acts of disinformation may be carried out simultaneously in different outlets to achieve a goal. For example, different articles intended to discredit a political candidate may circulate at the same time, with each version tailored to the readership. A younger reader may see an article about the candidate treating a young person poorly, while an elderly reader may see the same article but the victim may be an elderly person. Targeting of this sort is especially prominent in social media sites. In the modern era, the 2016 efforts waged by Russians targeting the U.S. elections is perhaps the best-known example of a disinformation campaign. In this case, the perpetrators used Facebook and Twitter to disseminate fake news, as was revealed by the hearings on Capitol Hill which examined and exposed the scheme. In May 2018, members of Congress ultimately revealed more than 3,000 Facebook ads which had been purchased by Russian agents during the 2016 election. The ads were full of deliberate falsehoods designed to stir outrage. The placement of the ads had been fairly sophisticated, targeting and reaching millions of Americans at very little cost. On February 16, 2018, the Office of the Special Counsel, led by Robert Mueller, indicted the Russian government troll farm, the Internet Research Agency, along with 13 individuals and three companies. The highly detailed 37-page indictment described a sophisticated disinformation campaign designed to create discord and influence the 2016 election. Russian Disinformation Disinformation campaigns had been a standard tool during the Cold War and mentions of Russian disinformation would occasionally appear in the American press. In 1982, TV Guide, one of the most popular magazines in America at the time, even published a cover story warning about Russian disinformation. Recent research has indicated that the Soviet Union spread disinformation about America and the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s. A conspiracy theory that AIDS had been created in an American germ warfare lab was spread by the Soviet KGB, according to a 2018 NPR report. The use of information as a potential weapon in the modern era was documented in a deeply reported article in the New York Times Magazine in June 2015. Writer Adrian Chen recounted remarkable stories of how Russian trolls, operating from an office building in St. Petersburg, Russia, had posted untrue information to wreak havoc in America. The Russian troll farm described in the article, the Internet Research Agency, was the same organization that would be indicted by Robert Muellers office in February 2018. Sources: Manning, Martin J. Disinformation.  Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security, edited by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, vol. 1, Gale, 2004, pp. 331-335.  Gale Virtual Reference Library.Chen, Adrian. The Agency. New York Times Sunday Magazine, 7 June 2015. p. 57.Barnes, Julian E. Cyber Command Operation Took Down Russian Troll Farm for Midterm Elections. New York Times, 26 February 2019. p. A9.disinformation. Oxford Dictionary of English. Ed. Stevenson, Angus. Oxford University Press, January 01, 2010. Oxford Reference.

Internation Disputes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Internation Disputes - Essay Example This essay will include elaborate details of the topic along with a discussion on settlement and the role of mediation for settling disputes. A critical analysis of the significance of the entire process supported by structured examples will also be discussed. The applicability of the concept takes place on the individuals, state level and regional and international level for resolving conflicts. In other words, the concept is applicable in resolving the conflicts amongst the individuals, independently amongst the states or regions of a country or amongst different countries functioning on the face of the earth. This concept is used by the regulators under the light of laws and legislation so that the problems can be resolved and a consensus can be formed between the aggrieved parties. Under this concept, several examples can be found which shows various peace treaties which have taken place between the nations. Examples of such treaties are Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, Iran, Pakistan , Argentina, Chile etc. Nearly all countries have been under treaties for resolving the issues and finding methods for resolving issues which arise internally. There are two methods using which the conflicts are resolved. One is the direct method and other is the indirect method. Both methods are applied after understanding and analyzing the complexities of the situations. Different methods have been proposed for resolving the conflicts along with different settlement methods3. Different methods will be discussed and analyzed as per the changing and varying situations as they arise. DEFINING INTERNATIONAL DISPUTES The concept of international disputes highlights the fact that the problems which arise between the nations must be resolved. This will ensure progress and stability in the entire environment and bind the nations in complying with the set standards4. â€Å"International disputes can be defined as a disagreement which arises between the states and impacts on the relations maintained between the states.5† The contemporary international law forbids the nations from the use of force or threats and impacts on the relation between the states. There are organizations which ensure that the conflicts and the disputes amongst the nations are resolved in a peaceful manner6. This can be settled on the basis of accords developed between the states. The principle of the state is managed, and resolutions are proposed using the UN charters, Pact of the Arab League, the Charter of the Organization of African Unity and the declarations proposed on the Principles of International Laws which are concerned directly with the friendly relations amongst the states. All these propositions are made in the light of the UN charter. Understanding this fact it can be concluded that United Nations plays a significantly prominent role in resolving conflicts. The international law does not provide precise methods for resolution of disputes. This is because the solution which is provided shall vary with the upcoming issues. The propositions for resolving the conflicts in the UN charter suggest negotiation, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement and setup an environment for proposing the issues which arise. The peaceful methods for resolving the international disputes include various methods include investigation and commissioning of the factors which have led to this problem. Direct negotiation methods

Optical systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Optical systems - Essay Example in wearable technology has become possible due to the technological developments in battery power, chip evolution, improved accuracy, and materials science advancements. There are major names of companies that has provided platforms for the wearable technology, which includes, Microsoft, Google, Nike, Samsung and Apple, while the earliest company entering in this field was Adidas. Though, the current use of wearable technologies is limited, but the future for this seems quite bright (Ranck, 2012). The purpose of this report is to investigate the present use and potential use of â€Å"optical† sensors, devices and displays in wearable technology, and also to research and investigate the topic of plastic optical fibers, their applications and devices used. The wearable technology has become much popular in today’s market, and there are a number of areas in which the wearable technology is currently available. A report by Beecham research in 2013, has shown the wide use of wearable technology in a number of areas, as they suggested that there are five key areas being augmented from the popularity of Wearable Technology Developments. These seven areas are the Security or Safety sector, Medical benefits or E-Health, Fitness or Wellness, Sports Fitness, Lifestyle Computing, Communications, and also the style or Glamor (the areas are given in the appendix as figure 1) (Beecham Reseach Ltd., 2013). Among the devices used as wearable, â€Å"†¦the wrist-worn devices are currently the most publicized areas in wearable technology, with 15.6% of all companies being directly involved†¦Ã¢â‚¬  as according to a research conducted by (IDTechEx, 2014). The most famous wrist-worn device is the smart wristband in the area of fitness and health and sports fitness, where the device is basically a modest computer, which is made in a way that it can be easily fixed on the wrist and monitor the consumers’ fitness through a number of related sensors. In this area, a recent example can be

Week 6 BUS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Week 6 BUS - Essay Example This condition is fundamental in case of any litigation. A mortgage refers to a document given by a lender of property, especially land, in order to create a lien on the particular piece of land. A mortgage involves two parties to the mortgage contract. These are the mortgagee and the mortgagor. The mortgagor is the borrower while the mortgagee is the lender of the property in quest. A mortgage contract also involves mortgage transfers, which are contacts involving banks. There are conditions, which must be fulfilled before a mortgage contract is enforceable in law are that the contract must be in writing. The particular document, which is used in the transfer of a mortgage, is called an assignment of a mortgage. According to Frank and Bahaudin, the mortgage contract gives the mortgagee the right to dispose the property in the event the mortgagor fails to cover the property debt (47). In a mortgage contract, either the mortgagee or the mortgagor with regard to the theory applied can hold the title of the property. In the case of a title t heory state, a borrower transfers the title to the lender over the period of the loan. Conversely, a lien theory state is a scenario in which the buyer of the mortgage holds the title of the property in quest. A mortgage is different from a deed on the issue of foreclosure. The document relating to the closure of escrow differentiates a mortgage from a deed. A covenant entails a pledge of property with an aim of securing a loan. In this regard, it is almost similar to a mortgage. A covenant involves a trust or and a beneficiary. In this case, the tutor is the borrower while the beneficiary is the lender of the property. The beneficiary is also known as a trustee, who holds legal title to the contractual property. The beneficiary helps in the selling of property, especially at auctions. The trustee can resort to the move when the borrower

Recruiting, Selection, and Training Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Recruiting, Selection, and Training - Assignment Example The numerous efforts which have been undertaken by the organisation have provided a good organisational culture which can attract individuals into working for the organisation. Recruitment can be defined as the process of continuously attracting individuals with essential skills, qualifications and desire to make applications for jobs within an organisation. Recruitment process remains one of the fundamental human resource services which seek to ensure the organisation gets the required human capital for performing various functions which the organisations deems essential. Effective recruitment process remains a significant determinant of the quality and skills which employees within the organisation have. During the recruitment process, the organisation must seek to match the organisational requirements. The aspects of recruitment is necessitated by the increasing change in the requirement of human capital within organisations. Before organisations can engage in the recruitment process, a careful analysis of the labour needs, within the organisation remains essential. This enables the stakeholders to estimate the labour needs of the organisation and adopt effective recruitment procedures. Within the organisational structure of Sheraton, the recruitment process is undertaken based on the human capital requirements established by the organisation. The elements which are considered include the skills and experience of the individuals required, in order to undertake the responsibilities effective. Consideration of these factors result in the adoption of a recruitment process, which could either be internal or external recruitment. Internal recruitment refers to the recruitment of an individual from within the organisations. This is commonly undertaken for many of the managerial posts which become vacant. The top management

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English - Essay Example This mortality rate inspires her to write mostly on death. Today’s writers are inspired by her ability to write on this responsive painful subject in a creative invented way. The ‘sweat-shop’ in the torment building is a meeting point for the Jewish population. The Jews try to socialize since they are common immigrants. However, there exist social and economic differences that divide the Jewish community. The writer tries to explain the ways to live in America in relation to work and romance. It brings out the concept of faith by clearly mentioning conviction as the best way to prosper in America. "They read the Tuesday Psalm in the synagogue this morning, but I should have read the Monday one." Cahan urges that assimilation is as a result of industrialization. Many Jews worked for the industries and from the work place many families’ dynamics were learnt. Immigrants are forced to learn English in America so as to fit in the society. Themes of creation of wealth, hope, gender and Christianity are mainly focused. The urge for being rich for the poor is shown by Deborah who steals money. Hugh is jailed after being caught with the money as indicated by this quote: â€Å"Hugh Wolfe, operative in Kirby & Johns Loudon Mills. Charge, grand larceny. Sentence, nineteen years hard labor in penitentiary.† This shows how the poor take futile attempts so as to acquire wealth. Development in gender balance is depicted majorly by Karl statute who is a hero in the story. Hugh’s femininity with strength in the struggle to make a living gives hope to future equality in gender. Hope is considered worthless in the story if the social status remains as it is. The writer insists that for hope to be instilled back, reforms must be of Christian norms. Christianity is depicted as the major theme in the story as seen in the last line of the story; God has set the promise of the Dawn. The argument is that Christianity serves as the only hope in the

Recruiting, Selection, and Training Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Recruiting, Selection, and Training - Assignment Example The numerous efforts which have been undertaken by the organisation have provided a good organisational culture which can attract individuals into working for the organisation. Recruitment can be defined as the process of continuously attracting individuals with essential skills, qualifications and desire to make applications for jobs within an organisation. Recruitment process remains one of the fundamental human resource services which seek to ensure the organisation gets the required human capital for performing various functions which the organisations deems essential. Effective recruitment process remains a significant determinant of the quality and skills which employees within the organisation have. During the recruitment process, the organisation must seek to match the organisational requirements. The aspects of recruitment is necessitated by the increasing change in the requirement of human capital within organisations. Before organisations can engage in the recruitment process, a careful analysis of the labour needs, within the organisation remains essential. This enables the stakeholders to estimate the labour needs of the organisation and adopt effective recruitment procedures. Within the organisational structure of Sheraton, the recruitment process is undertaken based on the human capital requirements established by the organisation. The elements which are considered include the skills and experience of the individuals required, in order to undertake the responsibilities effective. Consideration of these factors result in the adoption of a recruitment process, which could either be internal or external recruitment. Internal recruitment refers to the recruitment of an individual from within the organisations. This is commonly undertaken for many of the managerial posts which become vacant. The top management

Diversification Strategies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Diversification Strategies - Research Paper Example The company is among the foremost producers in majority of the markets where it operates in. The products manufactured by 3M are delivered through several distribution channels including wholesalers, distributors, retailers and dealers among others. As of 2010, 3M had 80,057 employees, out of which 32,955 were engaged in the business operations located in the United States and the rest globally. For the year ending 2010, 3M generated net sales equivalent to $ 26.7 billion which was a 15.3% increment from the year 2009. The operating income of the company also increased by 22.9% in the year 2010 as compared to that of 2009 (3M, 2010). Sears, Roebuck & Co. is amongst the principal retailers in the United States, functioning in all the fifty states of US in addition to Puerto Rico. The company has very limited global presence and operates internationally only in Canada. The company merged with Kmart to form Sears Holding Corporation in 2004. The total revenue of the company in 2010 was $43,326 million while that in the year 2009 was $44,043 million. The revenue value of the company in 2008 was $46,440 and had been decreasing over the years. As of January, 2011, the company had 280,000 employees in the US and around 32,000 in Canada (Sears Holdings Corporation, 2010). Although Sears, Roebuck & Co was always primarily in retail business, in the early 1980s the company had diversified into real estate as well as brokerage services through its subsidiary Allstate. However, post the diversification though the performance of the finance segment of the company was reasonable, the retail group of the company suffered as it failed to respond to altering times (Monks & Minow, 2008). Diversification Outcomes of the Two Corporations and Reasons for the Different Outcomes The diversification of 3M into its six different segments had produced positive outcomes for the company. 3M is recognized for its aptitude to produce new products and generate new businesses. It can be subst antiated from the fact that 30 percent of its revenue comes from products developed during the preceding five years. The company had time and again extended its existing technological proficiency to generate a comparable yet innovative product. 3M’s success can be attributed to variety of factors, such as a corporate culture that promotes risk taking, a focus on resolving client problems, the utilization of extended and long-term goals, and independence of the employees to follow their own ideas. Furthermore, 3M consistently follows the system of sharing technologies and expertise amongst the different business segments. It also pursues a reward structure that recognizes innovators in the organization. Thus, 3M had succeeded in diversifying its business by leveraging its technological competence (3M, 2011). The Sears, Roebuck & Co had been struggling since the past couple of decades, trying first one approach and then another, looking for sustainable growth and momentum and a n improved image. As discussed earlier, Sears had diversified into financial services and specialty retailing during the 1980’s. However, after its diversification into real estate and other financial services, Sears could not maintain its performance in

White House Essay Example for Free

White House Essay

Aspects to Translating Literature

Aspects to Translating Literature 1.) Introduction Translating texts requires skill, ability on the part of a translator in understanding the terms used in the source language (SL). As experts have pointed out, translation does not fully transfer the meaning of the terms from the SL toward the target language (TL) in which the texts are being translated. But in order to get closely as much as possible to the exact meaning of the term, translators follow a basic rule to put into mind the cultural nuances of the original term while finding their equivalent terms in another language (e.g. Arabic to English). In addition, because these terms have additional symbolic value as religious terms, translators must bear in mind of being careful in the translation. Toury (198 in Venuti ed.) himself highlights the role of translation in retaining the cultural nuances of the texts by saying that translators have a task â€Å"to fulfill a function allotted by a community to an activity, its practitioners and their products in a way deemed appropri ate to its terms of reference.† This researcher intends to ascertain the skill and success of Issam Diab in translating Ar Raheeq al Makhtoom, the memoirs of the Prophet Mohammad, from Arabic into English. Titled The Sealed Nectar, the memoirs records the life of Mohammad, while also discussing the socio-ecnomic background of Arabia during his lifetime. It was originally written by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri. 2.) Review of literature in brief Translation experts have pointed out various concerns in ensuring the translation of works from different languages. These range from defining when translations â€Å"formally† diverge from the literal meanings (Catford 141 in Venuti ed.) to ascertaining the equivalence of word meanings (Nida and Taber,) But all point to the problem of retaining the message of a text translated from SL to TL as much as possible. In addition translators have to consider the referential meanings of the words that they correspond so that they can define the exact meanings of the SL-based words that they are going to use. Culture aspects Studies such by Ahmed Elimam being conducted at the University of Manchester have tried to show the challenges in translating Arabic-language texts to English. Translators undertaking these projects faced the fact that there is a large diversity in terms of structural, grammatical, and semantic structure between the two languages. In addition they have to consider keeping as close as possible to the Arabic heritage the translated works. They also have to make sure that they words in Arabic which, by virtue of having deep cultural connotations, One can see this in the ongoing project to translate the Q’uran from Arabic to English as shown by Elimam. In this project, a team of translators tried to examine 10 translation of verses from the Q’uran and examine what are the grammatical and syntax changes were done in order to adjust in from the transfer of meaning from Arabic to English. Another continuing study made at the University of Manchester was of Ashraf Abdul Fattah was on comparing the changes of conjunction and passivisation in the translated works of Arab authors. This time the focus was on how changes in conjunction were made between the original and translated work made by the same authors. One can see here the attempt to verify if an author trying to translate his own works to another language can effectively transfer meaning given the differences in languages. 3). Issues in translation Translation studies have pointed out that there are terms in texts which must be carefully analyzed by a translator before proceeding in the translation proper. These terms are called â€Å"sensitive terms† which are defined as words considered central to the beliefs of the people owning the original texts. These may pertain to sacred teachings, quotations by the religions’ prophets or sages. Because of these, it is vital for translators to understand the religious beliefs, traditions and nuances behind the SL before undertaking any translation of religious texts. However, similar to translating works in other genres, translators have to deal with linguistic and cultural challenges before even being able to translate a work. According to Toury (199 in Venuti ed.), the main challenges faced by translators involve the systematic differences between languages (in terms of grammar, syntax, sentence structure), the variety in textual traditions contained in the texts to be translated, and also the â€Å"cognitive ability† of the translator to comprehend and transmit the meanings of the original texts from the original language to another language. In translating these terms, it is essential to consider first some important aspects in translation: translation shifts, kinds of norms types of equivalence, and emotive meaning. These factors determine how closely concise has a translator managed to express in the TL the meanings and terms originally expressed in the source language SL of a text . Translating texts involve changes in the use of grammar, contexts, and sentence structure, said Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) in a seminal study on translation shifts. These translation changes are categorized as level shifts and categorical shifts. Level shifts occur in translation when the meaning of an SL item, at one linguistic level, changes meaning at another linguistic level of the TL. In particular, this kind of shift occurs when the translator attempts to translate the meanings at the phonological and graphological meanings but the result will be only a shift from grammar to lexis levels. Categorical shifts occur when there are variations in rank, structure, class, term in systems while a text is being translated from the SL to the TL. But Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) qualifies this description by saying that there is a categorical shift when there is some form of formal correspondence between SL and TL. Structural shifts are the most common kind of categorical shifts and are noticeable in total translations, phonological and graphological translations Cartford (143 in Venuti ed.) added. Class shifts happen when the meaning of an SL item changes at a different translation level. Unit changes are observed when there is â€Å"a formal departure† in translation equivalent in one rank of the SL to another rank in the TL. Finally, intra-system shifts occur in cases where changes happen within the systems of both of SL and TL, where these systems still correspond to the languages’ â€Å"formal constitution.† However this must be qualified if the translation â€Å"involves selection of non-corresponding term in the TL system† Toury (199 in Venuti ed.) noted that translators are constrained by a wide range of â€Å"social regulations† which govern the behavior of a cultural community. This implied that there are particular cultural contexts which must be retained in the translation of terms from one language to another. At one pole of this continuum, are the absolute rules. These rules include local laws, ethics and traditions. At the other end are the idiosyncracies which pertain to the particular practices of individuals exhibited according to a particular situation. Located in between these far ends of the socio-cultural regulation scale are the norms which refer to the generally flexible set of rules governing particular situations in a context. These three kinds of social regulations influence translation because texts contain particular contexts which could only be explained through understanding these social regulations. Toury (200 in Venuti ed.) also pointed out that translation is a norm-governed activity because it also follows a set of rules pertaining to usage and transfer of meaning. This is flexible because each language has its particular meaning and context, hence the rules in terms of grammar and syntax may not be always be applicable. As he notes in his article, translation is being governed by norms depending on: Being a text in a certain language, and hence occupying a position, or filling a slot, in the appropriate culture, or a certain section thereof; Constituting a representation in that language/culture of another, preexisting text in some other language, belonging to some other culture and occupying a definite position. In translation, there are two large categories of norms which must be considered in planning and doing a translation of a work, namely: preliminary norms and operation norms. Preliminary norms pertain to the rules and policies governing the choice of text types to be translated and also the â€Å"tolerance† for translation (referring to the feasibility of translating terms which may have very specific cultural contexts not available in the language of the translator.), said Toury. Operational terms, he added, refer to the actual decisions made in the course of translations such as the distribution of textual material, verbal formulation and the like. Falling under operational norms are matricial (referring to the determination on the very existence of a textual material) and textual norms (which govern selection and usage of textual material to be translated.) Toury said that in general preliminary norms predominate over operational norms because the former lays down the structural basis in conducting a translation work (203). However despite this, the norms may still intersect, depending on the translation processes ensuing in a work. He also explained that multiplicity of norms still remain because each culture retains standards of regulating behavior even as they interact with other traditions. As a result translators have to face it and try to resolve them rather than just â€Å"ignore.† In Toury’s own words: â€Å" They only mean that real-life situations tend to be complex; and this complexity had better be noted rather than ignored, if one is to draw any justifiable conclusions. As already argued, the only viable way out seems to be to contextualize every phenomenon, every item, every text, every act, on the way to allotting the different norms themselves their appropriate position and valence† (205 in Venuti ed.) Another point of concern among linguist and translators is the equivalence of translating a meaning from the SL to the TL. Nida and Taber (200) defined equivalence as â€Å"very close similarity in meaning as opposed to similarity to form.† However, translation theorists have various concepts to explain and classify equivalence. Hoang pointed out in an online presentation that Nida and Taber had already gave out formal and dynamic equivalence in 1982 while Jakobensen theorized in 1959 equivalence can be achieved by a translator by using loan translations, neologisms, semantic shifts and circumlocutions. In 1992 Mona Baker came out with her own set of kinds of equivalences. These are â€Å"word level equivalence,† â€Å"equivalence above word level,† â€Å"grammatical equivalence† â€Å"textual â€Å"equivalence† and â€Å"pragmatic â€Å"equivalence.† Baker’s classification falls under the â€Å"formal’ equivalence category which focuses on how translators can use the forms of the texts in getting the closest meaning for an SL word, said Hoang. â€Å"Word level equivalence† refers to the attempt by a translator to find a corresponding meaning of one word from the SL to the TL. This effort entails a translator ensuring as much as possible that the counterpart word of the TL closely hews to the context of the original word from the SL. There are cases however when the texts between SL and TL do not correspond close enough to allow for the use of word level equivalence. In this case the translator must use the â€Å"equivalence above word level.† Here, the translator must find meanings which, while not be closely relate the corresponding TL word with the original SL word, must at least be related enough for the meanings to be still correlated. In the third strategy, the translator uses it when the correspondence between the two texts would only be found between the grammatical structures of the text. As a result, the translator has to analyse the grammatical correspondence between the texts of SL and TL, where despite the variety in the structural order of morpheme, syntax, and sentence orders, the same concepts or meaning can still be correlated between the two texts. However, there are instances when there is little correspondence in the verbal and grammatical structures of the SL and TL texts because there of a high diversity in the order of word and grammar structure. In light of this, the translator has to find correspondence in the overall textual structure of the SL and TL texts. He has to ascertain that the overall context in the SL text is still expressed in the TL version even though there are variations in grammar and syntax structures. If all these strategies still would not be able to correspond meaning between the SL and TL, then the translator has to use the pragmatic equivalence mode. Here, the translator uses the implied meanings of the SL text in order to at least express them in the TL . Another aspect in translating concepts from SL to TL is the use by translators of referential meanings. Nida (56) defines â€Å"referential meanings† as the use of â€Å"words as symbols to refer to objects, events, abstracts and relations.† The implication of this concept in translation is that translators have to consider the exact meanings of words based from OL in the translation of texts. (This is called denotation in grammar) This importance is highlighted by the fact that there is a diversity of meanings within those cultures and more so when translators try to get these exact meanings. One way to ensure this is to consult authoritative dictionaries of the SL concerned. One last aspect to consider in translation is the effect of emotive meanings to the translators. The Summer Institute of Linguistics online glossary defines â€Å"emotive meanings† as â€Å"affective meaning,† while terms related to it are â€Å"connotation/connotative meanings.† In sum, emotive meanings are definitions which have an association with a thing or concept even though these may not have direct conceptual relationship. The translators have to consider this while translating works from SL to TL because there are chances when the meanings that they try to correlate from SL to TL may just be a connotative meaning. Another way is to verify the specific contexts when these words are used. Aims The researcher aims to test, compare and synthesize the discussions above on various translation principles by conducting a review of â€Å"The Sealed Nectar (Ar Raheeq al Makhtum).† An English translation of the memoirs of the Prophet Muhammad was made by Issam Diab and was published in Saudi Arabia. With this translated memoir as the locus of the study, this researcher aims to fulfill the following aims: For the translation shift aspect, the researcher proposes to compare the source language (Arabic) and target language (English), identifying the translation shifts that happened in the book, and justifying the translator’s choice in making these translation shifts. As for the normative aspect, the researcher proposes to find out a.) if the translated version of the memoirs has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalence used even as it approached referential meaning. And b.) if the translated version has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalency while appr oaching emotive meaning. Finally, the researcher intends to contextualize the findings in the fact that many of the â€Å"sensitive terms† may be religious in nature This is study is made also with the aim of understanding the cultural and linguistic nuances distinguishable between English and Arabic. The researcher would like to point out in particular that the Arabic used here was the version spoken during the time of Muhammad, hence it is necessary to understand the historic-cultural background of the narrative. In addition the researcher would like to find out if there possible refinements which could be recommended for Diab’s work. Aside from it, the researcher will also cite these recommendations as possible future references with regard to translations of memoirs, specifically Arabic memoirs. Hypotheses and Research questions The research would like to resolve in this study the following hypotheses regarding the translation of â€Å"sensitive terms† in The Sealed Nectar. The researcher hypotheses that : there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching referential meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation of religious texts or the book there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching emotive meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation or the book. The researcher also hopes to answer specific questions in the course of this study. These are: what are the translation shifts adopted by the translator while tackling sensitive terms? to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching referential meaning. to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching emotive meaning. what are the most successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? what are the least successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? Approach As part of analyzing the â€Å"sensitive terms† used in the book The Sealed Nectar, this researcher intends to use the qualitative method of research. As generally known in academic and research circles, the qualitative method is used when the focus of the study intends to look at observing at particular characteristics of the sample subject which may be distinct from the general population. For this purpose, the researcher will both utilize three kinds of qualitative methods: book review analysis, documentary research and contrastive analysis. This researcher believes that it is necessary to use three kinds of methods because of the range of issues involved in the study and that each method have their particular loci. Initially the researcher will utilise the book review analysis to get a grasp of what they entire work contains, and to ascertain the particular context of the ‘sensitive terms† included in the book In this regard, this writer proposes to first utilise the book review analysis in studying the work The Sealed Nectar He will primarily use the linguistic perspective in dissecting the translation merits of this book because his focus would be on how Issam Diab translated â€Å"sensitive terms: from Arabic to English. In the context of this analysis, this writer proposes also to use a) the British National Corpus and b.) an authoritative Arabic dictionary to assist him in comparing the â€Å"sensitive terms† which are the foci of this research. Then the researcher will apply the documentary analysis method to compare the details from the book with details from other pertinent documents. These documents may include other Arab dictionaries, additional biographies on Mohammad, other Arab-language dictionaries and authoritative history books on Arabia. For the final part of the evaluation process, the researcher will apply the comparative analysis method wherein the findings from the two methods would be examined against each other. The researcher will then draw conclusions from this comparative study and then synthesise it with previous findings on translation to In the process of evaluating the translation, the researcher will cite previous theories and principles on translation, then use these as benchmarks in how successful was the English translation of Diab of Ar-Raheeq al-Makhtum in terms of transferring most of the original meaning from the original Arabic to English. In this aspect, this writer will primarily use the theories enunciated by Catford (141-147 in Venuti ed.) on translation shifts, Toury (198-211 in Venuti ed.) on translational norms, Baker on types of equivalence, and Nida (56-90) on referential meaning. But the researcher is open to using other kinds of research methodology if circumstances would warrant it. For example, the interview approach would be utilised if the researcher thinks there is a need to consult scholars on Arabic language, studies and literature. This is because the historical context of the narrative is key to understanding whatever â€Å"sensitive terms† which are enclosed in the work. Aside from that, it may be helpful if the researcher can get insights from these scholars regarding English translations of Arabic language works. This is because from their expert opinions, the researcher may further understand the change of nuances in translation, but not only from a purely technical aspect (translations shifts etc.), but also from the point of view of rhetoric and literary excellence. Tools For the purpose of this study, the research will use the following research tools in analyzing the Diab’s translation work: British National Corpus. an authoritative Arabic dictionary (preferably with references to Arabia during the time of Mohammad), two other biographies of Mohammad, and authoritative history books on Arabia. The reason behind citing these documents as tools in analyzing The Sealed Nectar is that the researcher wants to ensure that the needed details with regard to the study are utilized. The British National Corpus would serve as a guide on English words used in the book, to get the proper context of their usage. Then this will be complemented by the use of an Arabic language dictionary, to see how the original meaning and nuances of the SL based original version of the biography Then to put context into the analysis, the researcher will cite history books on Arabia to verify the authenticity of particular historical instances mentioned in the book. The res earcher thinks that a combined use of textual and historical analysis will help elucidate details on the accuracy of Diab’s translation. Scope While other interested researchers may find a whole range of translation issues in analyzing The Sealed Nectar, this writer intends to focus more on the accuracy of translating â€Å"sensitive terms† in the translation work. This is because these terms are loaded with religious meanings, which make these terms more challenging to translate as compared to other terms. In addition, the languages used have different nuances (Arabic as against modern English) which entails additional challenges in ensuring that the meanings of the terms do not get lost in translation. Tentative Outline of Paper : Within an allotted timeframe of a minimum of three years, this writer proposes an outline of the paper’s body: Chapter One: Linguistic analysis of sensitive terms in translation à   6 -12 months Chapter Two: Cultural, historical, and rhetorical aspects of the translation à   6-12 months Chapter Three: Evaluating the translation à   3-6 months Chapter Four: Summary, implications and recommendations à   3-6 months The writer intends to use the Sealed Nectar and the tools mentioned above in the first two years of the study. While he may formulate preliminary findings in the course of the study, the researcher intends to finalize them in the last year of the study through evaluation and formulation of summary findings and recommendations. The researcher takes note that accomplishing these aims may overlap depending on the availability of resources and the rate of research/analysis work. Books Nida, E, and Taber C. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Boston: Brill, 2003.pp. 56- 90 Chapters in Books Catford, J.C.. Translation Shifts.' The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 141-147 Toury, Gideon. Nature and Role of Norms in Translation.† (orig. 1978, rev. 1995) The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 198-211 Websites: Ar Raheeq Al Maktoom. University of Arkansas. July 28,2009 Translation Equivalence. Hoang. October 19 2008. July 28, 2009 . Elimam. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 . Abdul Fattah. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 Glossary. Summer Institute of Linguistics. July 28, 2009 . Aspects to Translating Literature Aspects to Translating Literature 1.) Introduction Translating texts requires skill, ability on the part of a translator in understanding the terms used in the source language (SL). As experts have pointed out, translation does not fully transfer the meaning of the terms from the SL toward the target language (TL) in which the texts are being translated. But in order to get closely as much as possible to the exact meaning of the term, translators follow a basic rule to put into mind the cultural nuances of the original term while finding their equivalent terms in another language (e.g. Arabic to English). In addition, because these terms have additional symbolic value as religious terms, translators must bear in mind of being careful in the translation. Toury (198 in Venuti ed.) himself highlights the role of translation in retaining the cultural nuances of the texts by saying that translators have a task â€Å"to fulfill a function allotted by a community to an activity, its practitioners and their products in a way deemed appropri ate to its terms of reference.† This researcher intends to ascertain the skill and success of Issam Diab in translating Ar Raheeq al Makhtoom, the memoirs of the Prophet Mohammad, from Arabic into English. Titled The Sealed Nectar, the memoirs records the life of Mohammad, while also discussing the socio-ecnomic background of Arabia during his lifetime. It was originally written by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri. 2.) Review of literature in brief Translation experts have pointed out various concerns in ensuring the translation of works from different languages. These range from defining when translations â€Å"formally† diverge from the literal meanings (Catford 141 in Venuti ed.) to ascertaining the equivalence of word meanings (Nida and Taber,) But all point to the problem of retaining the message of a text translated from SL to TL as much as possible. In addition translators have to consider the referential meanings of the words that they correspond so that they can define the exact meanings of the SL-based words that they are going to use. Culture aspects Studies such by Ahmed Elimam being conducted at the University of Manchester have tried to show the challenges in translating Arabic-language texts to English. Translators undertaking these projects faced the fact that there is a large diversity in terms of structural, grammatical, and semantic structure between the two languages. In addition they have to consider keeping as close as possible to the Arabic heritage the translated works. They also have to make sure that they words in Arabic which, by virtue of having deep cultural connotations, One can see this in the ongoing project to translate the Q’uran from Arabic to English as shown by Elimam. In this project, a team of translators tried to examine 10 translation of verses from the Q’uran and examine what are the grammatical and syntax changes were done in order to adjust in from the transfer of meaning from Arabic to English. Another continuing study made at the University of Manchester was of Ashraf Abdul Fattah was on comparing the changes of conjunction and passivisation in the translated works of Arab authors. This time the focus was on how changes in conjunction were made between the original and translated work made by the same authors. One can see here the attempt to verify if an author trying to translate his own works to another language can effectively transfer meaning given the differences in languages. 3). Issues in translation Translation studies have pointed out that there are terms in texts which must be carefully analyzed by a translator before proceeding in the translation proper. These terms are called â€Å"sensitive terms† which are defined as words considered central to the beliefs of the people owning the original texts. These may pertain to sacred teachings, quotations by the religions’ prophets or sages. Because of these, it is vital for translators to understand the religious beliefs, traditions and nuances behind the SL before undertaking any translation of religious texts. However, similar to translating works in other genres, translators have to deal with linguistic and cultural challenges before even being able to translate a work. According to Toury (199 in Venuti ed.), the main challenges faced by translators involve the systematic differences between languages (in terms of grammar, syntax, sentence structure), the variety in textual traditions contained in the texts to be translated, and also the â€Å"cognitive ability† of the translator to comprehend and transmit the meanings of the original texts from the original language to another language. In translating these terms, it is essential to consider first some important aspects in translation: translation shifts, kinds of norms types of equivalence, and emotive meaning. These factors determine how closely concise has a translator managed to express in the TL the meanings and terms originally expressed in the source language SL of a text . Translating texts involve changes in the use of grammar, contexts, and sentence structure, said Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) in a seminal study on translation shifts. These translation changes are categorized as level shifts and categorical shifts. Level shifts occur in translation when the meaning of an SL item, at one linguistic level, changes meaning at another linguistic level of the TL. In particular, this kind of shift occurs when the translator attempts to translate the meanings at the phonological and graphological meanings but the result will be only a shift from grammar to lexis levels. Categorical shifts occur when there are variations in rank, structure, class, term in systems while a text is being translated from the SL to the TL. But Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) qualifies this description by saying that there is a categorical shift when there is some form of formal correspondence between SL and TL. Structural shifts are the most common kind of categorical shifts and are noticeable in total translations, phonological and graphological translations Cartford (143 in Venuti ed.) added. Class shifts happen when the meaning of an SL item changes at a different translation level. Unit changes are observed when there is â€Å"a formal departure† in translation equivalent in one rank of the SL to another rank in the TL. Finally, intra-system shifts occur in cases where changes happen within the systems of both of SL and TL, where these systems still correspond to the languages’ â€Å"formal constitution.† However this must be qualified if the translation â€Å"involves selection of non-corresponding term in the TL system† Toury (199 in Venuti ed.) noted that translators are constrained by a wide range of â€Å"social regulations† which govern the behavior of a cultural community. This implied that there are particular cultural contexts which must be retained in the translation of terms from one language to another. At one pole of this continuum, are the absolute rules. These rules include local laws, ethics and traditions. At the other end are the idiosyncracies which pertain to the particular practices of individuals exhibited according to a particular situation. Located in between these far ends of the socio-cultural regulation scale are the norms which refer to the generally flexible set of rules governing particular situations in a context. These three kinds of social regulations influence translation because texts contain particular contexts which could only be explained through understanding these social regulations. Toury (200 in Venuti ed.) also pointed out that translation is a norm-governed activity because it also follows a set of rules pertaining to usage and transfer of meaning. This is flexible because each language has its particular meaning and context, hence the rules in terms of grammar and syntax may not be always be applicable. As he notes in his article, translation is being governed by norms depending on: Being a text in a certain language, and hence occupying a position, or filling a slot, in the appropriate culture, or a certain section thereof; Constituting a representation in that language/culture of another, preexisting text in some other language, belonging to some other culture and occupying a definite position. In translation, there are two large categories of norms which must be considered in planning and doing a translation of a work, namely: preliminary norms and operation norms. Preliminary norms pertain to the rules and policies governing the choice of text types to be translated and also the â€Å"tolerance† for translation (referring to the feasibility of translating terms which may have very specific cultural contexts not available in the language of the translator.), said Toury. Operational terms, he added, refer to the actual decisions made in the course of translations such as the distribution of textual material, verbal formulation and the like. Falling under operational norms are matricial (referring to the determination on the very existence of a textual material) and textual norms (which govern selection and usage of textual material to be translated.) Toury said that in general preliminary norms predominate over operational norms because the former lays down the structural basis in conducting a translation work (203). However despite this, the norms may still intersect, depending on the translation processes ensuing in a work. He also explained that multiplicity of norms still remain because each culture retains standards of regulating behavior even as they interact with other traditions. As a result translators have to face it and try to resolve them rather than just â€Å"ignore.† In Toury’s own words: â€Å" They only mean that real-life situations tend to be complex; and this complexity had better be noted rather than ignored, if one is to draw any justifiable conclusions. As already argued, the only viable way out seems to be to contextualize every phenomenon, every item, every text, every act, on the way to allotting the different norms themselves their appropriate position and valence† (205 in Venuti ed.) Another point of concern among linguist and translators is the equivalence of translating a meaning from the SL to the TL. Nida and Taber (200) defined equivalence as â€Å"very close similarity in meaning as opposed to similarity to form.† However, translation theorists have various concepts to explain and classify equivalence. Hoang pointed out in an online presentation that Nida and Taber had already gave out formal and dynamic equivalence in 1982 while Jakobensen theorized in 1959 equivalence can be achieved by a translator by using loan translations, neologisms, semantic shifts and circumlocutions. In 1992 Mona Baker came out with her own set of kinds of equivalences. These are â€Å"word level equivalence,† â€Å"equivalence above word level,† â€Å"grammatical equivalence† â€Å"textual â€Å"equivalence† and â€Å"pragmatic â€Å"equivalence.† Baker’s classification falls under the â€Å"formal’ equivalence category which focuses on how translators can use the forms of the texts in getting the closest meaning for an SL word, said Hoang. â€Å"Word level equivalence† refers to the attempt by a translator to find a corresponding meaning of one word from the SL to the TL. This effort entails a translator ensuring as much as possible that the counterpart word of the TL closely hews to the context of the original word from the SL. There are cases however when the texts between SL and TL do not correspond close enough to allow for the use of word level equivalence. In this case the translator must use the â€Å"equivalence above word level.† Here, the translator must find meanings which, while not be closely relate the corresponding TL word with the original SL word, must at least be related enough for the meanings to be still correlated. In the third strategy, the translator uses it when the correspondence between the two texts would only be found between the grammatical structures of the text. As a result, the translator has to analyse the grammatical correspondence between the texts of SL and TL, where despite the variety in the structural order of morpheme, syntax, and sentence orders, the same concepts or meaning can still be correlated between the two texts. However, there are instances when there is little correspondence in the verbal and grammatical structures of the SL and TL texts because there of a high diversity in the order of word and grammar structure. In light of this, the translator has to find correspondence in the overall textual structure of the SL and TL texts. He has to ascertain that the overall context in the SL text is still expressed in the TL version even though there are variations in grammar and syntax structures. If all these strategies still would not be able to correspond meaning between the SL and TL, then the translator has to use the pragmatic equivalence mode. Here, the translator uses the implied meanings of the SL text in order to at least express them in the TL . Another aspect in translating concepts from SL to TL is the use by translators of referential meanings. Nida (56) defines â€Å"referential meanings† as the use of â€Å"words as symbols to refer to objects, events, abstracts and relations.† The implication of this concept in translation is that translators have to consider the exact meanings of words based from OL in the translation of texts. (This is called denotation in grammar) This importance is highlighted by the fact that there is a diversity of meanings within those cultures and more so when translators try to get these exact meanings. One way to ensure this is to consult authoritative dictionaries of the SL concerned. One last aspect to consider in translation is the effect of emotive meanings to the translators. The Summer Institute of Linguistics online glossary defines â€Å"emotive meanings† as â€Å"affective meaning,† while terms related to it are â€Å"connotation/connotative meanings.† In sum, emotive meanings are definitions which have an association with a thing or concept even though these may not have direct conceptual relationship. The translators have to consider this while translating works from SL to TL because there are chances when the meanings that they try to correlate from SL to TL may just be a connotative meaning. Another way is to verify the specific contexts when these words are used. Aims The researcher aims to test, compare and synthesize the discussions above on various translation principles by conducting a review of â€Å"The Sealed Nectar (Ar Raheeq al Makhtum).† An English translation of the memoirs of the Prophet Muhammad was made by Issam Diab and was published in Saudi Arabia. With this translated memoir as the locus of the study, this researcher aims to fulfill the following aims: For the translation shift aspect, the researcher proposes to compare the source language (Arabic) and target language (English), identifying the translation shifts that happened in the book, and justifying the translator’s choice in making these translation shifts. As for the normative aspect, the researcher proposes to find out a.) if the translated version of the memoirs has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalence used even as it approached referential meaning. And b.) if the translated version has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalency while appr oaching emotive meaning. Finally, the researcher intends to contextualize the findings in the fact that many of the â€Å"sensitive terms† may be religious in nature This is study is made also with the aim of understanding the cultural and linguistic nuances distinguishable between English and Arabic. The researcher would like to point out in particular that the Arabic used here was the version spoken during the time of Muhammad, hence it is necessary to understand the historic-cultural background of the narrative. In addition the researcher would like to find out if there possible refinements which could be recommended for Diab’s work. Aside from it, the researcher will also cite these recommendations as possible future references with regard to translations of memoirs, specifically Arabic memoirs. Hypotheses and Research questions The research would like to resolve in this study the following hypotheses regarding the translation of â€Å"sensitive terms† in The Sealed Nectar. The researcher hypotheses that : there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching referential meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation of religious texts or the book there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching emotive meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation or the book. The researcher also hopes to answer specific questions in the course of this study. These are: what are the translation shifts adopted by the translator while tackling sensitive terms? to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching referential meaning. to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching emotive meaning. what are the most successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? what are the least successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? Approach As part of analyzing the â€Å"sensitive terms† used in the book The Sealed Nectar, this researcher intends to use the qualitative method of research. As generally known in academic and research circles, the qualitative method is used when the focus of the study intends to look at observing at particular characteristics of the sample subject which may be distinct from the general population. For this purpose, the researcher will both utilize three kinds of qualitative methods: book review analysis, documentary research and contrastive analysis. This researcher believes that it is necessary to use three kinds of methods because of the range of issues involved in the study and that each method have their particular loci. Initially the researcher will utilise the book review analysis to get a grasp of what they entire work contains, and to ascertain the particular context of the ‘sensitive terms† included in the book In this regard, this writer proposes to first utilise the book review analysis in studying the work The Sealed Nectar He will primarily use the linguistic perspective in dissecting the translation merits of this book because his focus would be on how Issam Diab translated â€Å"sensitive terms: from Arabic to English. In the context of this analysis, this writer proposes also to use a) the British National Corpus and b.) an authoritative Arabic dictionary to assist him in comparing the â€Å"sensitive terms† which are the foci of this research. Then the researcher will apply the documentary analysis method to compare the details from the book with details from other pertinent documents. These documents may include other Arab dictionaries, additional biographies on Mohammad, other Arab-language dictionaries and authoritative history books on Arabia. For the final part of the evaluation process, the researcher will apply the comparative analysis method wherein the findings from the two methods would be examined against each other. The researcher will then draw conclusions from this comparative study and then synthesise it with previous findings on translation to In the process of evaluating the translation, the researcher will cite previous theories and principles on translation, then use these as benchmarks in how successful was the English translation of Diab of Ar-Raheeq al-Makhtum in terms of transferring most of the original meaning from the original Arabic to English. In this aspect, this writer will primarily use the theories enunciated by Catford (141-147 in Venuti ed.) on translation shifts, Toury (198-211 in Venuti ed.) on translational norms, Baker on types of equivalence, and Nida (56-90) on referential meaning. But the researcher is open to using other kinds of research methodology if circumstances would warrant it. For example, the interview approach would be utilised if the researcher thinks there is a need to consult scholars on Arabic language, studies and literature. This is because the historical context of the narrative is key to understanding whatever â€Å"sensitive terms† which are enclosed in the work. Aside from that, it may be helpful if the researcher can get insights from these scholars regarding English translations of Arabic language works. This is because from their expert opinions, the researcher may further understand the change of nuances in translation, but not only from a purely technical aspect (translations shifts etc.), but also from the point of view of rhetoric and literary excellence. Tools For the purpose of this study, the research will use the following research tools in analyzing the Diab’s translation work: British National Corpus. an authoritative Arabic dictionary (preferably with references to Arabia during the time of Mohammad), two other biographies of Mohammad, and authoritative history books on Arabia. The reason behind citing these documents as tools in analyzing The Sealed Nectar is that the researcher wants to ensure that the needed details with regard to the study are utilized. The British National Corpus would serve as a guide on English words used in the book, to get the proper context of their usage. Then this will be complemented by the use of an Arabic language dictionary, to see how the original meaning and nuances of the SL based original version of the biography Then to put context into the analysis, the researcher will cite history books on Arabia to verify the authenticity of particular historical instances mentioned in the book. The res earcher thinks that a combined use of textual and historical analysis will help elucidate details on the accuracy of Diab’s translation. Scope While other interested researchers may find a whole range of translation issues in analyzing The Sealed Nectar, this writer intends to focus more on the accuracy of translating â€Å"sensitive terms† in the translation work. This is because these terms are loaded with religious meanings, which make these terms more challenging to translate as compared to other terms. In addition, the languages used have different nuances (Arabic as against modern English) which entails additional challenges in ensuring that the meanings of the terms do not get lost in translation. Tentative Outline of Paper : Within an allotted timeframe of a minimum of three years, this writer proposes an outline of the paper’s body: Chapter One: Linguistic analysis of sensitive terms in translation à   6 -12 months Chapter Two: Cultural, historical, and rhetorical aspects of the translation à   6-12 months Chapter Three: Evaluating the translation à   3-6 months Chapter Four: Summary, implications and recommendations à   3-6 months The writer intends to use the Sealed Nectar and the tools mentioned above in the first two years of the study. While he may formulate preliminary findings in the course of the study, the researcher intends to finalize them in the last year of the study through evaluation and formulation of summary findings and recommendations. The researcher takes note that accomplishing these aims may overlap depending on the availability of resources and the rate of research/analysis work. Books Nida, E, and Taber C. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Boston: Brill, 2003.pp. 56- 90 Chapters in Books Catford, J.C.. Translation Shifts.' The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 141-147 Toury, Gideon. Nature and Role of Norms in Translation.† (orig. 1978, rev. 1995) The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 198-211 Websites: Ar Raheeq Al Maktoom. University of Arkansas. July 28,2009 Translation Equivalence. Hoang. October 19 2008. July 28, 2009 . Elimam. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 . Abdul Fattah. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 Glossary. Summer Institute of Linguistics. July 28, 2009 .

Kidney Stones :: essays research papers

Kidney Stones The medical term for kidney stones is Nephrolithiasis or Renal Calculi. A kidney stone is a solid lump that can be as small as a grain of sand and as large as a golf ball made up of crystals that separate from urine and build up on the inner surfaces of the kidney. A kidney stone that does not pass on out can block the urinary tract. This blockage will probably cause a lot of pain. If medical attention is not received to identify the cause of the pain and remove the blockage, the pain is likely to go away over a few days. This usually will cause the sufferer to think that the problem is over with but it actually has not. The problem that had actually happened was that the kidney that had been blocked has now shut down. This kidney, if left untreated for just a few days, can lead to a permanent loss of the kidney.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many potential causes of a kidney stone. They are formed from any of the following, or even two of the following:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a family genetic predisposition to form stone  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  to local water or soil conditions  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  intake of excess uric acid, certain medications, Vitamin C, or Vitamin D  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  a diet of fruits and vegetables high in oxalate  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  long term dehydration and its resulting concentration of urine  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  urinary infection  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  living in an area where high temperatures cause sweating and loss of fluids  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  possibly, just leading a low physical activity lifestyle Doctors and other physicians say that the best two ways to prevent this disease from happening is to keep yourself well hydrated at all times. This is best done by drinking 2 or 3 cups of water a day and to only eat/drink a certain amount of the following foods:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  apples ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  asparagus ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  beer ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  beets ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  berries, various ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  black pepper ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  broccoli  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  cheese ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  chocolate ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  cocoa ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  coffee ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  cola drinks ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  collards ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  figs   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  grapes ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ice cream ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  milk ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  oranges ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  parsley ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  peanut butter ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  pineapples  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚ ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  spinach ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Swiss chard ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  rhubarb ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  tea ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  turnips ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  vitamin C ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  yogurt   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   If the kidney stone is larger than 1/4 inch in diameter it will most likely pass through the kidney without any medical treatments except for the pain killers to help the patient make it through the kidney stone episode which may last for several days. Those between 1/4 inch and 1/2 inch in diameter are less likely to pass on their own as they get larger. If the kidney stone is larger than 1/2 inch in diameter it will likely need to be either removed by surgery or by lithrotripsy. Lithrotripsy is the process of killing the stone by using