Pampers

The founders was James Gamble, a soap maker and William Procter, a candle maker and in Cincinnati in 1837. It is the producer of various everyday household goods. It is a key market leader within the consumer 140 countries, produces over 300 brands and has loyal customers worldwide. Company three business units: beauty (33%), health and well-being (21%), household care (46%). P&G delivers its goods to drug stores, mass merchandisers, membership club stores and grocery stores. Pampers† this is one of the most famous revolutionary products of the Procter and Gamble, founded by Victor Mills. Pampers was especially build to meet the mothers need in innovative product on the market which will lighten the wash of the cloth papers and also leakage of them. This product came in the late sass's. Procter & Gambles development of the diaper changed the diapering habits of consumers worldwide. Consumers moved from purchasing the cloth diapers to disposable diaper, which is better to childr en's skin, convenient to store, and has a good price comparing with cloth diapers.The company's specialists developed an exceptional three-piece construction to take up the wetness, allocate it consistently and transmit fluid to the leaky core without passing it recessively to the skin. Procter and Gamble revived more than Just convenience ease and comfort for consumers. Pampers brought health benefits to babies who use Pampers. Clinical studies have shown that children who use Pampers have drier skin, and less frequent and less severe diaper skin complaint than those who use cloth diapers.P diapers are now distributed to more than 80 countries worldwide, with this representing a major contributor to Procter and Gamble world profits. (P, n. D. ) 1. 2 Core customer issues The disposable diapers market is a very profitable. In ELK, there are about seven endured and fifty thousand births for each year and the diapers are usually worn for three years. It is represents a relatively short customer lifetime for Pampers. The arrival of the Huggins challenges Pampers' dominance of the traditional disposable diaper market in 1991.Huggins had earned 17% of the market by 1997 and it is reaching 30% in year 2000. Huggins continued to take share through a combination of competitive pricing and product innovation. One of the strengths of Huggins was promoted aggressively using their Mother and Baby Club and television. Huggins loud be the market leader in the fall of 2001 which is showed in growth pattern projections. Many mothers think that Huggins was the leader of market. When they interviewed, there was many discussion about latest news of Huggins.It reflects the growing strength of the Huggins brand. Trend analysis and consumer research found that there are two key trends affecting Pampers' impact on the marketplace. The most up-to-date information from friends, the Internet or print replaces the way of UK mums in the way of making decisions and traditional reliance on advice from health professionals and parents. Pampers are forced by the proliferation of information channels to find out a new way to reduce the background noise to reach potential customers. DIM, 2012) To build sales and maintain customer loyalty by rewarding the consumer for purchasing their products, the customer loyalty programs are introduced by Pampers which include free samples, sweepstakes, sales promotions of coupons and rewards. Pampers uses direct marketing strategies to maintain customer loyalty once a consumer becomes a Pampers member. The strategies include sending pamphlets and brochures with important information about each development stage as the nonusers child grows while promoting their products that fit each particular stage.While educating the consumer with valuable information pertaining to their growing child, Pampers is doing a great Job at promoting its products. Parents are offered the opportunity to share their baby's pictures with the whole social field by Pampers. It is showing marketers that being where your customers are the first step in toddling towards success in its â€Å"Love, Sleep and Play' campaign. It is launched in July 1 and runs until August 6 in year 2013. This campaign encourages moms and dads living in North America to upload pictures of their babies loving, playing and sleeping to the brand's Faceable page.Then, Pampers will display the selected images on Twitter, the online gallery pages and Faceable. The communication manager of North America for Pampers, Mary Woods says social is a natural environment for the brand's customers because it's where they already converse with other parents, as well as with the brand. She also says Pampers collected more than 20,000 photo submissions in less than three weeks of the campaign's launch. (Else Duper, 2013) 3. 0 Role of direct mail in relation to other channel . Direr mail Pampers direct mail package come with a variety of shapes and sizes, making it become one of the most flexible direct marketing media. An envelope, a brochure, a letter and a response device are included in a standard direct mail package. It is to motivate the recipient to open the standard direct mail package. The envelope must differentiate itself from other mail by its size, appearance and any copy that might be written on it regardless of the volume of mail a person receives. It provides the opportunity to directly address the interests and concerns of the recipient.The benefits of the detailed offer are usually clarified by the letter. Recipients are able to illustrate about the benefits of the offer from the brochure in letter. Illustrated brochures are used to sell services as well as products. The letter must include Response rates are generally higher when it is separated from the letter or brochure. Recipient can respond via telephone, toll-free numbers are always prominently displayed. The right timing, the right offer, the right person and the right format are fact ors in a successful direct marketing and it can be examined in direct mail.Mailers can run a test mailing to determine the response from a list before â€Å"rolling out,† or mailing the entire list by using computer technologies which can select a randomized name sample from any list. Direct mail provides the most cost-effective way of achieving the highest possible response in relation to the other direct marketing media. Telemarketing is much highest cost per response but it typically produces a higher response rate. 3. 2 Role of direct mail has changed since the arise of the Internet The role of direct mail has changed since the rise of the internet cause it slow, expensive and time consuming.There are new technologies which are CRY codes in nowadays. It allows a customer to be taken from the printed piece to a web location by using a mobile smart device equipped with a camera and an internet connection. The marketer benefits from the physical attributes of printed mail wh ile leveraging the power of online experiences for reinforcement of the message, persuasion, and better conversion with this technology. 3. 3 Role of TV (Interactive television) Pampers use interactive television (TV) as communication strategy.Through the internet, interactive television combines the emotive strength of TV advertising with the depth and personalization available. It is the preferred interactive device in the home for nowadays and in the future. When the viewers are registered to receive a newsletter, data will be captured. The newsletter can be emailed to personal computer or television. Chance to see themselves and their babies on TV in the baby gallery or in the video area talking about baby development issues: ‘real babies, real mums, real tips' are provided to parents.It also offers consumers the opportunity to sit a frequently asked questions area and to give feedback. 3. 4 Role of Internet Procter & Gambles Pampers are good consumers struggle to establis h and maintain differentiation from other disposable diaper brands percent. It is established to increase in a variety of ways, such as Pampers website (wry. Pampers. Com) basic product via an Internet site. Pampers Perks loyalty program which consumers have to collect points from Pampers diapers and wipes purchase and exchange them for the Sesame Street and Fisher-Price toys.Recently the customers are provided a chance to in a Chrysler minivan filled with diapers through Pampers Fantastic Sweepstakes. There is a convenient way to send a supply of Pampers such as Fisher-Price toy to a friend are provided in Pampers Gifts Packs. Pampers Parenting Institute provides advice from experts in child care, health and development through Parent Pages and it delivered by e-mail and customized to each stage of life from the third trimester through age four. The purpose of Pampers Parenting Institute as a public service campaign is to reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome visible driv er.Pampers is the second most popular baby care sites on the web with hundred million unique visitors per month because of the Pampers Parenting Institute. According to Advertising Age, consumers visiting the Pampers website are 30% more likely to buy effective. It provide unified communications which integrates e-mail, data transmission, instant messaging, voice transmission and electronic conferencing services. Web conferencing with Live Meeting, Microsoft Live Communications Server functionality and content management with Sharpening is the other services that included.Microsoft Outlook and Microsoft Office Sharpening Server support multiple users with meeting schedules, shared calendars and mailboxes and Sharpening lists. Through offering support for customers, Customer Relationship Marketing provides competitive advantage to organization on a continuous basis while focusing on every customer's wants and needs ensuring that these are satisfied in the best way (Hut and Sped, 2004 ). This strategy are successfully reduces the amount of cost that have to spend to seek new customers and gained the loyalty from customers (Hut and Sped, 2004).It shows the significance of managing the CRM and ensuring that all employees are well-equipped with knowledge of how to cope with any problems or complaints and how to treat customers that might happen from being involved directly with the customers (Taylor, 2007). Finally, Pampers has been successful in positioning its brand. They are consistent with their message and their consumers are well informed about their products. Pampers is successfully promoting its products while educating individuals about the developmental stages from newborns to toddlers.Of course, there is always room for improvements. Extending the product line to include bath products is one recommendation. Some examples could include Pampers shampoos, soaps, lotions, and oils. Pampers could promote their product by including coupons within or on their pa ckaging. This encourages customer loyalty by rewarding the consumer with extra savings. Maybe Pampers could come up with reward points by issuing membership cards and each time used they earn points that add up to Pamper dollars and then redeemed when purchasing any Pampers products.

Bath concentration of ACh (M) Essay

Results Figure 1 shows that the response of the tissue increased with bath concentration of ACh (M). The logarithms of bath concentration for each response were used to form a clear sigmoidal formation, and thus depict a more clear relationship between concentration and response. Figure 1 shows the increasing rate of response as bath concentration increased, before plateauing around the highest concentrations. Responses ranged from 0.685-100%, while bath concentrations of ACh ranged from 2 x 10-10 M to 8 x 10 ­-6 M (see Appendix, Table 1). The effective concentration causing half of the maximal response (EC50) occurred at a bath concentration of 2.74 x 10-8 M. The Hill coefficient of this curve was 1.237, indicating positive cooperativity. A representation of the isotonic contractions of the ileum can be seen in Appendix, Figures 1 and 2. Figure 2 illustrates the response of the Guinea Pig ileum through isotonic contractions when a dose of ACh is added into the organ bath with a competitive antagonist. A relationship between response and bath concentration can be identified through the clear sigmoidal formation observed in Figure 2. The responses ranged from 0-100% while bath concentrations ranged from 2 x 10-10 M to 8 x 10 ­-6 M (see Appendix, Table 1). The Hill coefficient of the curve was found to be 2.468 while the EC50 occurred at a bath concentration of 6.43 x 10-7. (Legend) Figure 1. The concentration-response curve to ACh in the absence of a competitive antagonist. Each dose of ACh was added to an organ bath containing a section of Guinea Pig ileum and Tyrode’s solution at physiological temperature. The response to ACh was measured by the isotonic contractions of the ileum until the maximum response was reached for the dose, using an isotonic force transducer with metal counter-weight of approximately 0.5g. A wash cycle of approximately 30 seconds overflow was then used to prepare the tissue for the next dose. Figure 2. The concentration-response curve to ACh in combination with a competitive antagonist (Atropine). Each dose of ACh was added to an organ bath containing a Guinea Pig ileum in Atropine solution set at bodily temperature. The response to eat dose of ACh was measured through isotonic contractions of the ileum using an isotonic force transducer with a metal  counter-weight of 0.5g. The response was measured periodically until the maximum response for the dose was achieved.

College writing and casual writing Essay

A. I think there is a big difference in college writing and casual writing. I fell like college writing has is more structured. You have to capitalize the words that need to be capitalized, Indent at the beginning of each paragraph, and write paragraphs in the write structure. College level writing is more in-depth and detailed than casual writing. B. My favorite hobby is listening and creating music. Music is very strong, meaningful, and a way to express feelings. C. I love listening and creating music. Listening and creating music is very fun to me, it’s also very relaxing. Music can be very useful in many ways. You can give a positive message in music and also get people to enjoy it by expressing on a rhythmic beat and words. Listening and creating music gives an outlet to express many different emotions, sad, mad, and happy. Creating music is fun from recording lyrics to mixing and creating the whole sound. Music is what I do in my free time, it’s my favorite hobby. Part2: A. I have to basic step that I think is going to be the most difficult for me is â€Å"Drafting†. The reason I chose drafting is because I never utilized that step unless it was required by the teacher, and counted as part of the assignment. I’m going to start utilizing all of the steps that where listed. When I write my text paper I’m going to sit down and plan my paper, Also planning and taking the proper steps actually make the paper easier to write.

Open my own business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Open my own business - Essay Example It does not require a lot of skills or special training to start your own body shop, but the success will depend on your ability to go the job well and serve the customers to their satisfaction. With such reasons, the following information will help in starting your own body shop. The best start of a business is to have all the legal regulations and licensing requirements met. To register the body shop with the state, the state clerk can help in its registration. The second thing concerning the registration is to obtain the following permits; council permits, police license, state license, industry standards and adoption etc Prepare business cards for the company which shows the name of company, address, and services offered. These cards are taken to shops around and placed on the doors. Also, these cards can be taken to auto body stores in the neighborhood and if people the owners can be asked to be distributing them. The business cards should be handed over to all the employees to distribute everywhere they go and to everybody they meet. A good approach to spreading business cards is to give some to close friends who then write their names on the back of the card. If customers bring these cards with them, the friend who gave out that card can be rewarded with two dollars or free service at the shop. The next thing is to check out for major auto- parts distributors in the area and other sources of wholesale priced equipment parts. Collision repairs of cars, trucks, motor homes and other automobiles, accidental related mechanical work, engine diagnostics, airbag system replacements, paintings, baked-on finishes, regular maintenance, tire and wheel mounting, alignment, oil changes and other tune-ups. They need to be stated depending on the available capital, technicians’ skills, and size of business. Qualified (skilled) employees are a boost to any business. It

Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 44

Ethics - Essay Example The objective of this paper is therefore, to identify examples of dubious activities which are involved in this movie. The first ambiguous activities in the movie, is the way most of the employees who work for the brokerage company becomes millionaires very fast. In real life situations, it takes a while for someone to become a millionaire. For example, in one of the scenes where Snarls Jin tells new recruits that the company does not hire brokers, but they train millionaires. This does not make sense because first of all, this is a brokerage firm, but one of the senior most managers tells its employees that they do not hire brokers, but train them to become millionaires. In addition its common knowledge that, every manager will always try to show new recruits, the company’s laid down rules. Therefore, the activities that the company; is involved with is ethically questionable. The moral philosophy by which the parties seemed to have relied to justify their actions is mala prohibita. This moral philosophy, describes the acts which are not morally wrong, but however, the law prohibits them (Mara and Roberts 108). The parties in the movie relied upon this philosophy to justify their actions by getting involved in dubious stock exchange in order to get rich quickly. This is because when they are caught, the law enforcers will not be able to find any evidence against them, unless they do a much thorough investigation. In addition to that, the constitution is also not very clear on what penalties someone found committing mala prohibita should be given (Mara and Roberts 109). The two alternative philosophies which could have led the parties to different results are mala in se and misdemeanor. Mala in se can be defined as those acts which are immoral and very wrong for killing someone. Misdemeanor on the other hand can be said to be those crimes which are not very serious and therefore attract less penalties (Mara and Roberts 110). In case the

Borderline Personality Disorder Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Borderline Personality Disorder - Research Paper Example When a person has borderline personality, they are unable to control the emotions that they want to feel, frequently displaying emotions that are inappropriate for any given situation. Borderline personality alters the way in which a person views themselves, their surroundings, and their relationships with others. One of the first signs that someone may be suffering from borderline personality disorder is that they begin to look down on themselves, regarding themselves as evil or worthless, or feeling as though they do not exist at all. The person becomes insecure and loses their sense of self-worth. This often leads to problems within the work area, family, or intimate relationships. One moment the person may completely adore someone, and then the next moment they may want absolutely nothing to do with them (Kreisman & Straus, 1991); these feelings can also describe how a person feels about themselves. Someone being effected by borderline personality disorder cannot decide how they really feel about someone, and even if their explanations of their feelings to themselves make sense, their emotions often say something entirely different. To make matters worse, thei r emotions change from day to day, so they can never pinpoint their honest feelings. Other symptoms of borderline personality disorder include risky behavior, such as unsafe sex, gambling, drug and alcohol use and abuse, and reckless driving, as well as a difficulty in controlling the impulses to engage in the aforementioned activities. Intense emotions that come and go often, uncalled for anger and negativity, and harsh but random spikes of depression or anxiety, and suicidal thoughts and attempts are also symptoms that have been linked to borderline personality disorder. One of the more common symptoms is a fear of being alone, as a person with borderline personality realizes that they are pushing people away without that being their intentions, yet they are not sure how to make their emotions

Religious influence on early American art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Religious influence on early American art - Essay Example The Puritan outlook rooted in the medieval times and was deeply religious. The Puritans believed that all human actions should be directed to the main value of glory of God. On the other hand, Puritan medieval outlook combines with the new democratic feature, because Puritanism with its political ideas was close to the most daring democratic and republican theories. In most cases, Holy Bible served as an informal body of law and understanding of the rules of everyday life. In this respect, early American art being a sponge of the public ideas, absorbed the Puritanism with its religiousness. The current paper considers the influence of the religion on early American literature and fine arts. Considering the early American literature, the early writers had Holy Bible as a model. Bible was the most important source of plots, imagery, and inspiration in the conditions unsuitable even for life. Every passage of the Old and New Testament could become a subject of a sermon or a poem (works by Edward Taylor or a poem â€Å"The Day of Doom† by Michael Wigglesworth). In addition to that, every event of the daily life in New England was reinterpreted in accordance to Scriptures and was seen as a fulfilled prophecy and a confirmation of a reality of the Biblical texts. The joys of hearth and home, marital love, and the birth of children were seen as a manifestation of the Lord’s will and became a topic for New Anglican letters, diaries, poems, and reflections. A personal spiritual experience was also very important and worth literary incarnation. The spiritual experience included the moments of enlightenment or penance communication with God as well as the confrontat ion with the spirits of wickedness (Halleck, 2006). The writers of New England left behind mostly spiritual autobiographies and the diaries of the inner spiritual life (â€Å"The Spiritual Travels of Nathan Cole† (1765). Didacticism is another essential feature of the early literature of New

Southern Baptist Church Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Southern Baptist Church - Essay Example She being in the image of God as her husband and thus equal to him has the God-given responsibility to respect her husband and to serve as his helper in managing the household and nurturing the next generation." Another part of the document declares emphatically: "the office of pastor is limited to men as qualified by Scripture." To some church members, SBC is living in the past. Thus, at least 10 faculty members of the Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary and an unknown number of educators from five other SBC seminaries have reportedly left or were forced out of their jobs for refusing to sign the church document. Indeed, the women's fight for equality has come a long way since the Suffragists won the right to vote such that the meaning of women's "submission" to men may have changed significantly over time (Melick, 1998). Now, it is considered right and just for women to serve in the military, work in underground mines or fly an airplane (Hosken, 1981). Does the SBC edict agai nst women pastors belong to the dark ages when the prevailing culture expected women to be subordinate to men and very few women were as well educated as men The SBC in its Baptist Faith and Message acknowledges its commitment to gender equality, pointing out that men and women are of equal worth before God since both are created in God's image. Thus, both men and women are qualified for service in the church. However, the church maintains that the position of pastor is limited to men and women can only serve as helpers, the same way 10 of the 16 helpers in Paul's ministry were women as noted in the Apostle's letter to the Romans. According to SBC, its position on women pastors complies with the explicit teachings of the Scripture, which does not support the practice of allowing women to serve as pastors (Melick, 1998). On this subject, the SBC cited three reasons: 1) there were no women pastors in the New Testament times; 2) none of the instructions regarding church order include instructions for women pastors; and 3) some texts on church order explicitly forbid women to occupy the position of pastor. In effect, the church acknowledges that women have the same rights and privileges as men but in the same breath say that a woman cannot occupy a man's position, which at a glance seems to be contradictory. The church maintains that there is no contradiction here, as there is no contradiction when Paul in 1 Timothy 2:12 affirms the equality of men and women in salvation but equally and just as clearly affirms the priority of men in church leadership. In addition, the Bible says marriage is to be a companionship of equals (Genesis 2:24) and husband and wife have equal value as persons (Galatians 3:28). Nonetheless, the Scripture teaches a hierarchy of responsibilities, which is necessary for creation, time and our humaneness (SBC, 2000). In this organizational hierarchy, everyone needs to submit to someone else to maintain human order. The wife submits to her husband, while the husband submits to Jesus, who in turn submits to God. Each of them should then treat those who submit to them with respect. In this connection, Ephesian

MGT599 - Strategic Management, Mod 3 Case Assignment Essay

MGT599 - Strategic Management, Mod 3 Case Assignment - Essay Example In this paper we will make a detailed analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of Southwest Airlines and see how they contribute to its overall success. A firm is blessed with its own resources of men, money, machines and materials that can be used to its best advantage if the strategy it is following is correct and feasible in the present conditions. Strong and Robust Reputation: One of the best strengths of Southwest Airlines is its strong reputation and brand name in the airline industry. Established in 1967, it changed its name to Southwest Airlines in 1971 and from them on has been dominating the local air transport sector in the USA. According to its Annual Report 2011, it presently flies to 76 destinations within the USA, and following its acquisition of Air Tran and strategic alliance with Volaris, Mexico it has also established routes to the Caribbean and Mexico in Latin America, making it an emerging regional player (Annual Report, 2011). Zealous and Committed Staff: Southwest Airlines makes no secret of the fact that it works hard to be the leader in the domestic airline sector. It spends a lot on the training and education of its staff and likes strong, enterprising and hard workers who can do a variety of tasks. Even its internship program encourages this attitude. A unique combination of zeal and enthusiasm on the part of its workers coupled with a businesslike but courteous customer service plan makes for a WOW experience even on this low cost service provider. Although Southwest Airlines has in excess of 45,000 staff belonging to as many as 18 different Collective Bargaining Agents in Unions, yet it has managed to coexist with their needs (Annual Report, 2011). Exemplary Pricing and Service Plans: Another plus point for Southwest which other airlines are struggling to emulate are its challenging low fares and variety of pricing plans,

A Brief History of Byzantine Art Essay Example for Free

A Brief History of Byzantine Art Essay Byzantine Art important pictorial Document St.mark’s basilica, Venice italy [pic] four co-emperor ruling plan called The Tetrarchy [pic] Cupola at the transept crossing [pic] The most famous of the surviving Byzantine mosaics of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople – the image of Christ Pantocrator on the walls of the upper southern gallery [pic] Miniatures of the 6th-century Rabula Gospeldisplay the more abstract and symbolic nature of Byzantine art. [pic] Frescoes in Nerezi near Skopje (1164), with their unique blend of high tragedy, gentle humanity, and homespun realism, anticipate the approach of Giotto and other proto-Renaissance Italian artists. [ [pic] Leaf from an ivory diptych ofAreobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus, consul in Constantinople, 506. Areobindus is shown above, presiding over the games in the Hippodrome, depicted beneath. [pic] Mosaic from San Vitale in Ravenna, showing the Emperor Justinian and Bishop Maximian of Ravenna surrounded by clerics and soldiers [pic] Mosaic from the church of Hagios Demetrios inThessaloniki, late 7th or early 8th century, showingSt. Demetrios with donors [pic] Helios in his chariot, surrounded by symbols of the months and of the zodiac. From Vat. Gr. 1291, the Handy Tables of Ptolemy, produced during the reign of Constantine V. [pic] An example of Macedonian ivorywork: the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste, now in the Bode Museum,Berlin [pic] The Annunciation from Ohrid, one of the most admired icons of the Paleologan Mannerism, bears comparison with the finest contemporary works by Italian artists [pic] Modern Orthodox mural from Israel using a depiction of the Nativity of Christ little changed in over a millennium [pic] Byzantine Manuscripts (sixth to 15th century) In the Byzantine Empire, another tradition of manuscript illumination emerged. The most influential characteristics of Byzantine manuscript painting were the abundant use of precious metals, especially gold; the choice of bright colors; and the use of empty space, often filled with gold leaf, as background. Byzantine illumination was frequently devoted to narrating biblical stories. Styles of depicting the human figure varied in Byzantine art over the centuries. Sarcophagus St.peter [pic] The so-called Gothic chieftain, from the Mosaic Peristyle of the Great Palace of Constantinople [pic] Saint Peter mosaic from the Chora Church [pic] A pre-Iconoclastic depiction of St. Demetrios at the Hagios Demetrios Basilica in Thessaloniki. [pic] The mosaics of St. Marks Basilica in Venice [pic] mosaic in San Vitale in Ravenna [pic] Byzantine mosaic in Ravennas Basilica di SantApollinare in Classe [pic] Latin cross plan A view of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul [pic] Location within Turkey Istanbul [pic] Interior view of the Hagia Sophia, showing Islamic elements on the top of the main dome. [pic] Stone remains of the basilica ordered by Theodosius II, showing the Lamb of God [pic] Construction of church depicted in codex Manasses Chronicle (14th century) [pic] Groundplan of the Hagia Sophi

Assignment On Managing Financial Resources And Decision Finance Essay

Assignment On Managing Financial Resources And Decision Finance Essay Executive summary: In this assignment different types business forms like sole trader, partnership, and limited companies are briefly discussed. Also discussed how they perform and what are the requirements to start a business? How we finance business. The needs of financing like short, mid and long term resources include briefly in this assignment. There are share capitals, bond debenture, called up share capital, share premium, EPS dilution and diluted EPS. These terms are discussed from many books and websites. Introduction: John Caird had been working in an engineering consultancy firm. Recently he laid off with redundancy payment. He is planning to start his own business. In this assignment I discussed various forms of financing of business, how he can start his business, what are the problems of his business and many business and finance terms. Chapter-1- Identifying the sources of finance available to business. Task answer: There are several possible business options for John Caird. These options are sole trader or proprietorship, partnership and corporation. Sole trader or proprietorship 2. Partnership 3. Limited company Sole trader: a sole trader is an individual in business. Generally sole traders businesses are small with their own name. It is the most common organization. There are some advantages of being a sole trader: independence, personal service, simplicity. Since they have few legal requirements, sole proprietorships are easy to form and operate. They can also be more affordable since no legal documents need to be filed in most cases. Basically, all one has to do to form a sole proprietorship is get a business license and begin operations. Although the sole proprietorship does have the advantage of simplicity, the negatives can turn entrepreneurs away from this form of business association. The disadvantages of a sole proprietorship stem from its very nature the business and the business owner are undividable. This leads to three potential problems. First, owners can lose some beneficial tax-free perimeter benefits because they cannot participate in company-funded employee benefit plans like medical insurance and retirement plans. Second, since the owner and the business are inseparable, whoever sues the business actually sues the owner. The owners personal exposure is unlimited. Finally, the business owner is personally liable for the debts of the company, and unfortunately, personal assets can be taken to pay company obligations. Partnership: A partnership is a group of individuals working together in business with a view to making a profit. It is similar to a sole trader but has two or more owners. Like the sole trader, the partnership is not a separate legal entity from its owners. Unlike the sole trader, however, the partnership can hold property and incur debt in its name. A partnership is easy to establish and involves two or more people running a business together. The partners are the business. Examples of partnerships include group of doctors, dentists, accountants and solicitors. A partnership does not have to be registered any where but it is often advisable for partners to have a partnership agreement drawn up by a solicitor. This will state what capital. Limited Company: A limited company is a separate legal entity, owned by shareholders and run by directors. A limited company is quite different from a sole trader in that it has a legal identity separate from its owner. The owners the shareholders- are not personally liable for the companys debts, but can be made so if they are asked by a lender to provide security. A limited company must be registered at Companies house. An annual return and financial statements must be sent each year to Companys House by company. The rules for running the company must be set out in the Memorandum and Articles of Association, a copy of which must also be sent to Companies House. There is must paper work involved in establishing and running a limited company. Task B Requirements Term Explanation Building and fixtures Long term It can be purchased by mortgage loan. Office Vehicle Mid tern It could be financed by commercial bank or bond. Security System Mid term Leasing and hire purchase should be suitable for it. Payroll Expense (year 1) Mid term Bank loan is a option. Marketing expense Short tern/ midterm Office Stationary Short term From personal savings. Printing and Publications Short term It can be financed by trade credit. Sources of Finance Depending on the date of maturity, sources of finance can be clubbed into the following: Long-term sources of finance: Long-term financing could be raised from the following sources: Share capital or else equity share Preference shares Retained earnings Debentures/Bonds of different types Loans from financial institutions Loan from financial firm Loans from commercial  banks Venture capital funding Asset securitization Medium-term sources of finance: Medium-term financing can be raised from the following sources: Preference shares Debentures/bonds Public deposits/fixed deposits Commercial banks Financial institutions Financial corporations Lease financing / hire purchase  financing External commercial borrowings Foreign currency bonds   Short term sources of finance: Short-term financing can be raised from the following sources: Trade credit Commercial banks Fixed deposits for a period of 1 year or less Advances received from customers Various short-term provisions Task C DEBT EQUITY None Hire-Purchase Mortgage Loan Leasing Bonds and debenture Invoice factoring Share capital Retained earnings Personal savings Cash management Invoice discounting Debt- These are cost where interest forms of payment is paid. Equity- These cost are paid from the part of profit or income. Chapter-2- Assess the implications of different sources of finance. Task D There are a number of ways of buying these things. The business might go to the bank for a loan, arrange some sort of finance deal with the supplier, use cash they have in the business or arrange a lease option. A lease effectively means that the business is paying for the use of a product but do not own it. Also it is called hiring. A lease contract on a van, for example, might mean that the firm pays out  £350 per month for a three year lease. At the end of the three years the vehicle returns to the owner. Lease agreements can be of benefit to the firm for the following reasons: It can be cheaper to organize a lease rather than having to buy apparatus outright Leases can be very flexible equipment might only be needed for a short time or for a particular development and so does not warrant being bought outright. The company that owns the equipment, machines or vehicles is liable for the maintenance and this can help decrease costs for the business. The payments made are usually fixed and will not therefore change as interest rates change. This helps business plan more effectively. (Reference from www.bized.co.uk ) Before taking any lease we should conform how long do we plan to stay? And we must know the rules and regulation of leasing party. And do there demands match with my requirements and ability. Task E Factoring  is a  financial transaction  whereby a business sells its  accounts receivable  to a third party at a  discount  in exchange for immediate money with which to finance continued business. Also it is taken when there is a massive amount of sales is done on credit. It is generally used by businesses to progress cash flow but  can  also be used to shrink administration overheads.  Business that provides this service is called factors or debt factoring companies. Invoice discounting is another way of drawing money against your invoices. However, your business retains control over the administration of your sales ledger. As well as providing finance,  it offers important support services and credit insurance. Factoring provides a fast  forestallment  against your sales ledger. It allows you, at a cost, to flexibly increase your working capital and improve cash flow. Factoring  is offered to businesses trading with other businesses on credit terms.  It is not usually available to retailers or to cash traders. Factors requirements differ, so what follow is an indication and not a firm list. We may find a matter even if the following features not met. Johns business may be suitable for factoring if it has: An annual turnover of at least  £50,000 although some factors will consider start-ups and smaller businesses Business should have more than just a few customers. No single customer accounts for more than about a third of turnover. Customers that allow the standard payment terms for the industry. Customers that agree to a reasonable period of credit. (Reference from www.businesslink.gov.uk ) Task F Trade credit is an arrangement to buy goods or services on account that is without making immediate cash payment. In other words, trade credit is Buy now, pay later. For many businesses, trade credit is a crucial tool for financing growth. Trade credit is the credit extended to you by suppliers who let you buy at this instant and pay later. Any time you take delivery of materials, equipment or other valuables without paying cash on the spot, youre using trade credit. We can acquire materials very fast by trade credit. Most of the time paying duration is very shorter than bank loans. When we are first starting our business, however, suppliers most likely arent going to offer trade credit. They are going to desire to make every order c.o.d. (cash or check on delivery) or paid by credit card in advance until we have established that we can pay our bills on time. While this is a fairly regular practice, we can still try and negotiate trade credit with suppliers. One of the things that will help us in these negotiations is a properly prepared financial plan. So Mr. John Caird could buy security system, stationeries and printings by trade credit. Task G If Mr. John Caird wants to issue share capital or bond/ debenture to increase more fund for his organization he should start limited company. Limited companies are the largest form of business enterprise. Finance is provided by individuals and financial institution- such as pension funds and unit trust managers- buying shares in the company. The way the investment is made will depend on the size of the company. Limited companies, like sole trader and partnerships need finance for long-term purposes. They may also need finance for the acquisition of other companies and business. Also limited company must follow the rules of the Memorandum and Articles of Association. There are the differences of issuing share capital and bond debenture. Issuing Shares Bonds/Debentures Type of Finance Equity Debt Cost High Relatively much lower Risk Low or no risks High Bonds and Debentures are debt instruments. The Company issues the Bond or Debenture as the case may give details of the interest to be paid and the period of the loan, and how the loan will be repaid. When we buy any bond or debenture we become a creditor to the company. Share is equity participation in the Company. When we buy a share, we become a shareholder of the company. The company will pay us dividend on the shares. To issue a share / bond / debenture, the company must be registered and must have the necessary minimum capital. Chapter-3- Select appropriate sources of finance for a business project Task H If John Caird is interested to start sole-proprietorship form of business then he should finance the following requirements:| Building and fixtures: This need long term finance. In my opinion Mr. John can go for leasing buildings and fixtures. Although there are no ownership but he can reduce finance cost. He has limited capital thats why it can be risky to buy buildings and fixtures. And when Johns business will run well he could purchase buildings and fixtures. Office Vehicle: It will better to buy on mid term loan, as means of paying it by instalments. Security system: Mid term finance is suitable for security system, because every year new and better security systems are updating. So John could go for mid term financing like- leasing. Payroll Expense (year 1): it can be financed by short term finance like-loans from commercial bank or personal savings. Marketing expense: It must be go to the short term loan. Because marketing expense vary on situation and factors. Also marketing policy changes dramatically. Office Stationary: John Caird can buy office stationary by hire purchasing. This will be best for him. Printing and Publications: Printing and publication should be financed by short term form. John can use trade credit or advances received from customer. Task I Cairn Energy illustrated that their Property, Plant Equipment- Development/Producing assets has increased from $1,119.6m in 2008 to $1,828.6m in 2009. And theres something in balance sheet called share premium which is 30 times larger than Called up share capital. Called up share capital- Called up share capital is the money required to be paid by the share holders immediately. Share premium- Share premium is the value which is set above the face value (the increased amount). Excess amount received by a firm over the par value of its shares. This amount forms a part of the non-distributable reserves of the firm which usually can be used only for purposes specified under corporate legislation. Task J EPS stands for earnings per share. The portion of a companys profit allocated to each outstanding share of common stock.  Earnings per share  serve as an indicator of  a companysprofitability. Calculated as: When calculating, it is more accurate to use a  weighted average number of shares outstanding over the reporting term, because the  number of shares outstanding can change over time. However, data sources  sometimes simplify the calculation  by using the number of shares outstanding at the end of the period.( http://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/eps.asp) Diluted EPS  expands on basic EPS by including the shares of  convertibles or warrants outstanding in the outstanding shares number.   Dilution: A reduction in earnings per share of common stock that  occurs through the issuance of additional shares or the conversion of convertible securities. Diluted EPS: A  performance metric used to gauge the quality of a companys earnings per share (EPS) if all convertible securities were exercised. Convertible securities refer to all outstanding convertible preferred shares, convertible debentures, stock options (primarily employee based) and warrants. Unless the company has no additional potential shares outstanding (a  relatively rare circumstance) the diluted EPS will always be lower than the simple EPS. ( Reference by Principles of managerial finance, Tenth edition, Lawrence J Gitman.) Conclusion: From three chapters we could know the way how to finance of a company. In my opinion, to established Mr. John Caird Company he should follow this steps. Otherwise the unnecessary steps can increase and he may fall in nuisance.

Processes of Water Treatment

Processes of Water Treatment Question Limit of detection Stating the water supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2001, limit of detection is calculated as three times the relative within batch standard deviation of a natural sample containing a low concentration of the parameter. Also, its means five times the relative within batch standard deviation of a blank sample. DA Armbruster et al (1994) stated that the limit of detection may be determined statistically based on measuring replicate blank negative samples or empirically by measuring progressively more dilute concentrations of analyte. Limit of detection (In analysis) Limit of detection is expressed as the concentration, cl, or the quantity, ql, is derived from the smallest measure, xl, that can be detected with reasonable certainty for a given analytical procedure. The value of xl, is then given by the equation: xL = xbi + ksbi Where xbi = Mean of the blank measures   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sbi = Standard deviation of the blank measures   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  K = The numerical factor chosen according to the confidence level desired. (IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology 2 (2007)). Trueness Stating the water supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2001, trueness also referred to as the systematic error is the calculated difference between the true value and the main value of the large number of repeated measurements. Andrzej Bobrowski et al (2004) stated that trueness indicates the closeness between an accepted reference value and the average value of the considered laboratory test. Practically, it is defined as the closeness of agreement between the mean of the result of a measurements of a measurand obtained specifically between day precision conditions and the true or conventional true value of the measurement Dr. Xavier Fuentes-Arderiu (2009). Precision By stating the water supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2001, precision also referred to as the random error is being calculated as twice the standard deviation (within a batch and between batches) of the spread of result about the mean. According to Andrzej Bobrowski et al (2004), precision indicates the closeness of agreement between independent test results obtained under stipulated conditions and thus, should be obtained by using the standard fortified samples (blanks) at different circumstances across working range. The most common way to express precision is in form of standard deviation. However, it is also expressed as a variance or a coefficient of variation. Question 2 Part 1 Directive requirements Chemical Parameter According to the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2001, Benzene is indentified as a chemical parameter under part 1 directive requirements with maximum concentration value of 1.0 and it is measured in  µg/1. Its point of compliance is in the consumers taps. Microbiological Parameter Under the part 1 directive requirements of the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2001, Escherichia coli is a microbiological parameter with maximum concentration value of 0, unit of measurement in Number/100ml and point of compliance in the consumers taps. Part II National Requirements Chemical Parameter According to the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2001, Manganese is a part II national chemical parameter with maximum concentration value of 50, unit of measurement as  µg/Mn/1 and its point of compliance is in the consumers taps. Microbiological Parameter Coliform bacteria is a part II national microbiological parameter Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2001 with maximum concentration at 0, unit of measurement as Number/100ml and its point of compliance is at the service reservoir and water treatment works. Question 3 Part I Directive requirements Exposure to benzene causes depression of the central nervous system (CNS), drowsiness, and nausea, loss of co-coordination, confusion and unconsciousness. At 25 ppm, it has no effects, but between 50 to 150 ppm, it produces headaches and tiredness (Canadian centre for occupational health and safety (2007)). Long term exposure or inhalation of benzene causes blood disorders in the human. Specifically, benzene affects the bone marrow and causes damages to the immune system. Also, chronic exposure to benzene in women leads to reproductive effects such as decrease in the size of the ovaries, menstrual disorders etc. It causes severe bloody diarrhoea and abdominal cramps. In children below age 5 and the elderly, it causes an infection called haemolytic uremic syndrome, which destroys the red blood cells and leads to kidney failure (US Environmental protection Agency (2006)). Part II National requirements In the book by Levy J.S and Nasetta W.J (2003) Chronic inhalation of manganese into the human body may cause damage to the nervous system and the respiratory tract. Excessive exposure to manganese causes an irreversible brain disease with a prominent psychological and neurological disturbance which looks like Parkinson diseases also known as Manganism (Bureau of Environmental health (2009)). Basically, coliform bacteria do not cause sickness in human but their presence in a water gives rise to public health concerns due to the potential of other pathogenic or disease causing organism like bacteria, protozoa and viruses also being present in the water. The waterborne diseases from these organisms involves flu-like systems such as fever, diarrhoea vomiting and nausea (Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (1998)). Question 4 Rational for the use of the indicator Parameter: The rational for the use of conductivity as an indicator is detecting water pollution. Water has a comparatively invariable range of conductivity and once the conductivity is established, it is being used as the bases for assessment with regular conductivity measurements. Conductivity determines a number of applications relating to the water quality. These applications are stated below; Quick notification of difference or variance in wastewaters and natural water. Conductivity is used in the determination of the amount of treatment chemicals to be added in a water sample. It is used in determining mineralization: this is referred to as total dissolved solids and the total dissolved solids results is used to determining the overall ionic effect in water source Lastly, it is used in the estimation of the size of samples to be for other chemical analyses. Question 5 Quality of the abstracted water The Abstracted water in Peidiwch Yfed y Dwr is comprised of chemical parameters with values that does not correspond with the value stated by the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2001. According to the regulations, the limit for iron in water is 200 µg/l which is below 2mg/l, the concentration level of iron in the abstracted water. Binnie et al (2002) stated that iron may be derived from raw water or from corrosion of iron water mains and they are common in ground waters (p9). High concentration of iron makes water corrosive with reddish or brownish yellow stains. (See figure 1 below). It will also have operational effects on the plumbing equipments due to corrosion which might result in blocking up the water distribution system Binnie et al, (2002). The water regulation allows maximum concentration value of 50 µg/l for manganese which is below the concentration of manganese in the abstracted water. Manganese is derived from raw water Binnie et al, (2002) and since the level of manganese in the water is 1mg/l, the water will be toxic which causes Toxicity to the nervous system something similar to Parkinsons disease (Connecticut department of public health(2010)). The abstracted water having a pH of 6.3 makes it acidic. The required pH for water under the regulations is 6.5. Due to its acidic nature, it would contain metal ions which causes a blue green staining of the sinks and damage to metal piping due to corrosion and health risk associated with the toxic metals. Hard water relates to the level of calcium and magnesium compounds present in water. Hard water does not pose a health risk but it causes scale in water. Water hardness ranging between 60 120 mg/l is moderately hard (American ground water trust (2003)). Since the hardness is 70mg/l, the content is not acceptable. The concentration of total pesticides in the water poses a great risk to human health (See figure 2 below). The maximum value allowed for total pesticides in the water is 0.50 µg/l which is below the concentration in the abstracted water. Thus, the water is not of good quality. Buzzi, (1992) states that effects of pesticides can range from premature birth to birth defects involving the CNS and internal organs (p100). The concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons allowed under the regulations is 0.10 µg/l which is above the concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in the abstracted water. According to N.F. Gray (1994) World health organization has set a level for 3,4-benzopyrene of 10ng/l which is equivalent to 0.00001mg/l. Water containing more than these amounts would cause gastrointestinal and oesophageal tumours (p 147). Cryptosporidium outbreak in the town may occur due to faecal-contamination of the water resources directly or indirectly by sewage or animal waste. According to Gray (1994), they are parasitic protozoa that forms oocyst which allows them to survive longer in water while waiting to be ingested by a host(p160) (See figure below).Low level exposure to the oocyst is capable of initiating an infection Rose (1990) and in a study by Blewett et al (1993) it was indicated that a single oocyst may be enough to cause infection. N.F. Gray (2004) stated that the main symptoms of cryptosporidiosis are stomach cramps, nausea, dehydration and headaches(p160). Technology/Operation to make the abstracted water wholesome To make the abstracted water wholesome, it will undergo some treatment process. Firstly, the concentration of iron and manganese in the water are at 2mg/l and 1mg/l respectively compared to 200 µg/l and 50 µg/l which is the value for the water to be wholesome. Therefore, it would be treated by coagulation or flocculation which is the addition of chemical such as ferric sulphate that forms floc and entraps the impurities in the water. The floc will then be separated from the water through sedimentation. To remove the taste and odour, the water will undergo aeration, ozonation and adsorption on actuated carbon. The pH level will be adjusted to 6.5 by adding alkaline substances such as calcium carbonate i.e. free lime or by aeration. The water will then undergo boiling at a very high temperature so that the bicarbonate will decompose to produce calcium/magnesium carbonate which is not soluble in water. Thus, it precipitates out thereby reducing the hardness of the water. Carbon filtration will be done in other to reduce the total pesticides present to 0.50 µg/l which is the level required by the regulation. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon present in the water differs from the stipulated concentration according to the regulations which is 0.9 µg/l, therefore microfiltration will be done to adjust the level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the water. The water will undergo ultraviolet filtration to treat the effect of cryptosporidium which involves ultra filtration, microfiltration and nano filtration. This process will remove organic compounds from the water thereby reducing the effect of cryptosporidium in the water. Finally, the water will be disinfected with the addition of chlorine to deactivate all pathogenic microorganisms present in the water before consumption. Advantages The advantage of coagulant water treatment is that it is very effective in removing particles that are otherwise very difficult to remove in water. Also, using water softeners in reducing the water hardness and adjusting the pH value prevents limescale and increases heating efficiency in water. The advantage of using activated carbon filters in water is that it effectively removes organic contaminants from the water. The advantage of using ultra violet water filters in treating the effect of cryptosporidium is due to the fact that it generally kill 99.9% of bacteria and viruses in water. The advantage of chlorine disinfection is that it is cheap and readily available in gas, liquid or powder. Disadvantages The disadvantage of coagulants is the cost and the need for accurate dosing and frequent monitoring. In using water softeners, the disadvantage involved is that the output water may not be suitable for drinking. The disadvantage in the use of carbon filters is that it does not remove microbes, nitrates, sodium and hardness. The disadvantages of using ultraviolet water filters in treating the effect of cryptosporidium is that it only kills the bacteria, it wont remove the dead cell and other contaminants in the water. The disadvantage of chlorine disinfection is taste and odour problems. Treatment Train Water is usually given an appropriate treatment to ensure the water supply is of high and consistent quality. A potential treatment train flow chart to produce water meeting the requirements of the Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulation 2001 is shown below: References N.F. Gray. (1994) Drinking water quality: problems and solutions. John Wiley Sons. Buzzi. (1992) Chemical Hazards at Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants. Lewis. D.A Armbruster, M. D Tillman et al. (1994) Limit of detection (LQD)/limit of quantitation (LOQ): comparison of the empirical and the statistical methods exemplified with GC-MS assays of abused drugs. Clinical Chemistry, Vol 40, 1233-123. Andrzej Bobrowski, Jan Mocak et al. (2004) Metrological Characteristics and Comparison of Analytical Methods for Determination of Chromium Traces in Water Samples. Acta Chim. Slov. 2004, 51, 77-93. Dr. Xavier Fuentes-Arderiu. (2009) Trueness and Uncertainty Westgard QC, Universitat de Barcelona, CATALONIA (SPAIN). Canadian centre for occupational health and safety (2007) [online]. Available from: http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/chem_profiles/benzene/health_ben.html#_1_1 [Accessed 3rd January 2010] US Environmental protection Agency (2006) [online]. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/ecoli.html#four [Accessed 2nd January 2010] Levy, J.S and Nasetta, W.J. (2003) Neurologic effects of manganese in humans: a review. International J Occup Environmental Health. 2003 Apr-Jun;9(2):153-63. Bureau of Environmental health, health assessment section (2009) Manganese in water. Columbus, Ohio. IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology 2nd edition (2007) [online]. Available from: http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/L03540.pdf [Accessed 4th January 2010]. Chris Binnie, Martin Kimber et al. (2002) Basic water treatment. 3rd edition. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge. Connecticut department of public health(2010) [online]. Available from : www.ct.gov/dph/lib/dph/drinking_water/pdf/manganese.pdf [Accessed 5th January 2010]. Rose, J.B. (1990) Emerging issues from the microbiology of drinking water. Water Engineering and Management, July, 23. Blewett, D.A., Wright, S.E. et al. (1993) Infective dose size studies on Cryptosporidium parvum using gnotobiotic lambs. Water Science and Technology, 27 (3-4), 61. Health Hazard Information-From the EPA Health Effects Notebook for Hazardous Air Pollutants-Draft (2010) [online]. Available from: http://www.acute-myelogenous-leukemia.com/html/hazard.html [Accessed 5th January 2010]. U.S Environmental protection agency (2006) Drinking water contaminants [online]. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/ecoli.html[[Accessed 4th January 2010]. Health Maxx Plus Inc (2007) What is pH? [online]. Available from: http://www.healthmaxxplus.net/#/what-is-ph/4529153688 [Accessed 5th January 2010]. Wisconsin Department of Health Services (2008) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) [online]. Available from: http://dhs.wi.gov/eh/ChemFS/fs/PAH.htm [Accessed 7th January 2010]. Iron in drinking water (2003) [online]. Available from: http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/water/dwg/iron.htm [Accessed 5th January 2010]. Lenntech water treatment solution (2009) Iron (Fe) and water [online] Available from: http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/water/iron/iron-and-water.htm [Accessed 3rd January 2010]. APEC (2009) pH values of water explained [online]. Available from: http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education/quality-water-ph.htm [Accessed 4th January 2010]. The Manganese Health Research Program (2010) Brief Background on the Health Effects of Manganese [online]. Available from: http://www.manganese-health.org/about_us/healtheffects [Accessed 7th January 2010]. Pesticides (2002) Fact Sheet Series: Pesticides in Drinking Water [online]. Available from: http://www.waterbornediseases.org/FactSheets/pesticide.htm [Accessed 6th January 2010]. Conductivity and Water Quality (2010) Environmental Impact [online]. Available from: http://www.kywater.org/ww/ramp/rmcond.htm [Accessed 8th January 2010]. Chelsea and Westminister Hospital (NHS) (2008) Water Safety Cryptosporidium [online]. Available from: http://www.chelwest.nhs.uk/documents/hiv_factsheets/general/Water%20Safety%20%20Cryptosporidium.pdf [Accessed 4th January 2010].

Truman, the Atomic Bomb, and the Shaping of the Postwar World Essay

Truman, the Atomic Bomb, and the Shaping of the Postwar World ABSTRACT Historians have questioned the decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan in 1945. Evidence shows that President Truman weighed not only military information in his decision to use the bomb, but also considered postwar politics and foreign policy when he considered dropping the atomic bomb on Japan. An analysis of his personal papers offers a different reasoning for using the bomb than what was commonly known at the time. The discrepancy between Truman’s public and private reasoning will be discussed. Many cultural and racial beliefs about the Japanese played into the decision to drop the atomic bomb. The private papers of President Truman as well as the diaries of other political and military figures offer helpful insights. Personal accounts of the scientists at the Trinity test site are also used in examining the decision to drop the atomic bomb. Herein, there is an analysis of post-war US foreign policy from an atomic perspective which allows a person from my generation to understand the policies that were created by and followed from the Cold War. Assumptions About Dropping the Bomb 1. Many American soldiers would have died in a land invasion of Japan. Absolutely. Casualty estimates ranged from 250,000 American casualties to more than 5,000,000 Japanese casualties in a land invasion of Japan’s home islands. The real question is was a land invasion necessary? 2. We had to use the atomic bomb in order to defeat Japan. False. There were a few options available to the United States at the time. The USSR was supposed to enter the Japanese war, blockade and (aerial sorties) bombing was an option ... ... "[M]y own opinion was that the time now and the method now to deal with Russia was to keep our mouths shut and let our actions speak for words. The Russians will understand them better than anything else. It is a case where we have got to regain the lead and perhaps do it in a pretty rough and realistic way. They have rather taken it away from us because we have talked too much and have been too lavish with our beneficences to them. †¦This was a place where we really held all the cards. I called it a royal straight flush and we mustn't be a fool about the way we play it. They can't get along without our help and industries and we have coming into action a weapon which will be unique [the atomic bomb]. Now the thing is not to get into unnecessary quarrels by talking too much and not to indicate any weakness by talking too much; let our actions speak for themselves."

Steve Huey :: essays research papers

Omaha, AR(DE)- Amazingly the act to end one’s life ultimately saved it. "Steve Huey" was suffering from an inoperable and fatal brain tumor. Doctors had given him only two months to live, so Huey decided to end It sooner rather than face the pain. He wrote a suicide note and then placed the gun to his head and shot. Later, friends found him on the floor in a pool of blood. They called the ambulance and within hours, Huey was up and walking around. "His sense of humor was amazing, but even more amazing is his luck," remarked his doctor. The chances of him shooting out his brain tumor are 254 million to one. The bullet missed all of the vital parts of the brain and shot out the tumor. Friends and family have urged Huey to put his luck to good use and buy lots of lottery tickets. "I tell him everyday ‘go buy a lottry ticket’ and ‘go bet on a horse’, but he just won’t do it. Sometimes he can be so stubborn," said a close friend. Doctors are cautioning to other terminal patients not to try what Huey did. They say there is no way that they help themselves, they will harm themselves severely. Huey is currently writing a book and is planning a national book signing tour. Also in the works, a movie and a sitcom based on his story. "I am a very lucky guy and I plan to turn this mirale into some serious cash for myself," said Huey in an exclusive interview. An auction is also in the works that will sell the gun, the hosptal bill, and the tumor itself. Any collector will love to own this tumor and should be willing to spend lots of money for it," added Huey. Ice Cream Filled Grand Canyon Mexico City, Mexico(DE) - At the annual conference for the American Citizens For A Better Grand Canyon Group (ACFABGCG), attendees decided that the only way to attract more people to the Grand Canyon would be to fill the natural woder with ice cream. Twenty millions gallons of ice cream will be needed to maintain a full level everyday. It is hoped that this will help Arizona's ice cream manufacturing plants and a fee will also be passed for anyone that looks at the Grand Canyon. In other Grand Canyon developments, a vote narrowly failed to build an amusement park at the bottom under all the ice cream.

Hiv Routes Of Transmission Health And Social Care Essay

Human immunodeficiency virus HIV is a lentivirus from retrovirus household that causes a HIV Infections in worlds which alters the immune system in a really terrible manner. HIV causes Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) at the last phase of the infection. The virus attacks immune system which makes people much weaker in contending against infections and assorted terrible diseases1. The chief focal point of this virus on human cells is to destruct the CD4 positive T Cells of the organic structure ‘s immune system. Destruction of CD4 positive T cells makes it worse for the immune system to contend against the infections, which allows life-threatening timeserving infections and more wellness jobs which may take to decease. Human immune system consists of of import cells which are being destroyed by HIV. This leads to moo CD4 count which in bend makes the human organic structure weak in contending against the infections2. HIV is found in the blood, chest milk, seeds and vaginal fluids of an septic individual. The virus is transmitted from one individual to another through blood to blood and sexual contact. HIV Infected individual ‘s Saliva with blood or any other organic structure fluids can be harmful and infective. HIV can be transmitted in different ways, such as sexual intercourse, blood transfusion, and besides contaminated subcutaneous acerate leafs. In the UK, the most common manner of acquiring HIV is by unprotected sexual intercourse with a individual who is HIV positive. It has shown in the UK statistics 2010 from the Health Protection Agency that 95 % of those diagnosed with HIV Positive due to sexual Contact. This shows that bulk in the UK get infected by HIV is through sexual intercourse which includes vaginal, anal and unwritten sex. This virus enters through the blood stream in different ways like lacerate tegument, oral cavity and eyes liners, and besides through the thin liner o f the anus and genitalias. HIV is non transmitted from an septic individual through caressing, caressing, ptyalizing, sharing bath towels or cutter, utilizing the same swimming pool and oral cavity to talk contact1. From the recent study, it has been shown that the following groups of people are at higher hazard of HIV infection which includes people who are shooting drugs, sex workers every bit Wellss as work forces holding sexual intercourse with men3. There are assorted methods to forestall HIV Transmission in our community through avoiding activities that leads you to dangerous jobs, such as unprotected sex and sharing septic acerate leafs and other assorted shooting equipments1, educating and reding people with HIV positive by the doctors and supplying them the best intervention so that to forestall HIV transmittal in general4. Current UK guidelines on HIV purpose to increase HIV proving in all health care sectors to diminish the sum of undiagnosed HIV infections. It is suggested that HIV trial should be offered to general populace in some sectors and besides to high hazard people in other different sectors ( for illustration, general pattern ) . The Department of wellness ( DH ) asked the National institute of wellness and clinical Excellence ( NICE ) to develop public wellness counsel to increase HIV proving between work forces who have sexual connexions with work forces to cut down undiagnosed infection and besides to forestall HIV transmittal. HIV Testing is one of the most of import factors which helps and guides the full community in UK through reduced HIV transmission5. Harmonizing to the statistics sing HIV, 6000 to 7000 people are diagnosed HIV Positive each twelvemonth in England. This is an of import factor to inquire the full community to concentrate and get the better of this job. Hence, encourage people to prosecute in different methods to forestall HIV transmittal and salvage the community in general with supplying proper consciousness sing HIV6. One of the most effectual ways to forestall HIV transmittal is through sex that is abstain from sex is the surest method to forestall HIV. If you decide to hold sex so acquire tested foremost to avoid HIV transmittal between you and your partner7. Use of rubber right in sexual activity is the most of import and advantageous point to halt the HIV spread and other infections which are sexually transmitted at every individual clip you have acute sex. Condoms are being marketed in different types of colors, forms, texture and spirits. Male rubbers are made up of latex or polyurethane and female rubbers are besides known as FC2, which is used for vaginal sex only7. Second, usage of merely water-based lubricators can increase sexual pleasance every bit good as safety, merely by adding wet to the vagina or anus during sexual intercourse. Lubricants decreases the hazard of vaginal or anal cryings which can be caused by waterlessness and besides it protects the rubber from rupturing off durin g sexual activity1. Third, usage of dental dike reduces hazard of sexually transmitted infections. It works as a wall between the oral cavity and vagina during unwritten sex. Fourthly, avoid utilizing septic acerate leafs, panpipes, or spoons which can expose you to HIV and other viruses which are found in the blood1. Pharmacological Prevention of HIV transmittal is through medical specialties and there are different methods used in forestalling its spread. Antiretroviral therapies ( ARTs ) are used to handle HIV, which prevents viral spread in the organic structure. A combination therapy of antiretroviral or extremely active antiretroviral therapy ( HAART ) is used for the effectual bar of HIV reproduction and transmittal in the organic structure. CD4 count and viral burden blood trial are two of import factors which help the physicians to make up one's mind on the intervention of that peculiar patient. Treatment is normally starts when the individuals CD4 counts shows below 350, irrespective of their presence or absence of their symptoms1. Harmonizing to WHO guidelines, it states that ART inductions are really good in forestalling HIV every bit good as clinically, they are more powerful in handling HIV positive patients, when the CD4 count is less than 350 cells/mm3. Viral burden plays the major function in HIV transmittal as it is one of the highest hazard factor in this scenario. When the viral burden is less than 1500 copies/mm3, the hazard of conveying HIV is about nothing as suggested by recent surveies. Evidence shows that the viral burden degrees are decreased by ART, hence bounds HIV transmittal depending on individual ‘s HIV position. WHO guidelines shows that they are chiefly engaged on extinguishing HIV and they strongly suggest that the usage of ART protects the full community which besides includes kids and pregnant adult females by handling and forestalling them from the spread of HIV8. There are different groups of ART medicines to forestall and handle HIV infection1. Virus attaches to the host cel l whereby it fuses with the host cell membrane. After the incursion into the host cell, the outer coat of the virus is removed and familial stuff and an enzyme released into the host cell, which is called rearward RNA polymerase, which converts viral RNA to viral DNA, so viral DNA penetrates to the host cell nucleus where by two procedure takes topographic point which includes written text and interlingual rendition takes topographic point which leads to bring forth new virions through peptidase enzyme2. Different antiretroviral medical specialties holding different mark but with one purpose, that is to suppress viral reproduction. Rearward RNA polymerase inhibitors are of two types that includes nucleoside contrary RNA polymerase inhibitors and non-nucleoside contrary RNA polymerase inhibitors. NRTIs are defective constructing blocks of Deoxyribonucleic acid when they are incorporated into HIV DNA, hence blocks the viral reproduction procedure, by non finishing the Deoxyribonucleic acid Chain. NNRTs bind to the enzyme contrary RNA polymerase and suppress the procedure of viral replication2. NNRTs are used in the intervention or HIV-1 but it is seldom used for HIV-2 in the UK9. Protease Inhibitors are inhibits the procedure of production of viral stuff through interfering with the peptidase enzyme. In the UK, Protease Inhibitors are Entry Inhibitors are inhibitors involved in barricading the virus to adhere with the host cellular membrane that lead to the obstruction of virus into the host cell. Integrase inhibitors are involved in barricading the procedure of integrating of viral familial stuff into the Host D NA by suppressing integrase enzyme. Microbicides are chemical and pharmacologic substances that are used for destructing some micro-organisms that cause terrible jobs to worlds. Many compounds are being produced and tested their effectivity against microbicidal activity in clinical tests. These merchandises are being produced for vaginal every bit good as rectal applications to protect from HIV infections and other sexually transmitted diseases. Presently, scientists are working on this undertaking in developing microbicides for forestalling HIV transmittals and heighten the degree of patient safety12. Post-exposure prophylaxis ( PEP ) is ARTs used after the exposure like occupational injuries10 or sexual exposure11 to forestall HIV infection. PEP medicines are non yet proved every bit good as unlicensed in the UK. They are merely supported by experimenting on animate beings. Besides, there are ongoing surveies for pre-exposure prophylaxis where it includes antiretroviral drugs before the exposure to HIV2. Another preventative step against HIV is through Vaccination procedure. Presently, HIV Vaccine is non available but it is one of the on-going research at a really early phase to bring forth effectual HIV Vaccine into the market so that to protect the full community against HIV infection. Since 1990, surveies have shown that the HIV spread from female parent to kid has been increased every twelvemonth. The Department of Health policy proposing that an HIV Test to be carried out in each and every pregnant adult females and has shown that it has addition consciousness in adult females prior to bringing and it has shown that more than 80 % of the adult females are cognizant in London, 2001 every bit good as it has reduced the figure of babies being infected in the UK13. Antiretroviral interventions ( ART ) are being used in gestation to forestall HIV transmittal from female parent to child. It is suggested that if you are HIV Positive so do non breast feed your kid, as virus transmittal can happen through chest milk1. Overall guidelines and counsel of antiretroviral therapy are being provided to forestall transmittal of HIV from female parent to child14. Pre-exposure prophylaxis ( PrEP ) in HIV protects healthy people from HIV infection. Current surveies and clinical tests are in the procedure of developing of PrEP to forestall transmittal of HIV. Surveies have shown a lessenings hazard of HIV infection among animate beings that are exposed to ARVs. PrEP has shown its effectivity in â€Å" humanized † research lab mice in the survey which was conducted in 200715 and besides, ARVs are given to female parents and babies to cut down HIV transimmsion16. The PrEP research surveies uses the drug called tenofovir that is delivered by unwritten path or topical path. It has shown in the four clinical tests that it reduces the hazard of acquiring HIV infection but in the two tests have shown no good response. As of today, there are two on-going surveies that have non yet published their findings on the consequence of HIV transimmision. There are many challenges in relation to safety and effectivity of PrEP inventions. Besides combinatio ns pill called TruvadaA ® ( Tenofovir and Emtricitabine ) which was accepted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) for the intent in HIV intervention in 2004. Truvada, as a PrEP was approved by the FDA in July, 2012 for forestalling from HIV transmittal. Powerful research grounds shows that the PrEP is safe and effectual when used systematically for diminishing the hazard of acquiring HIV sexually17. In Conclusion, it can be said that there are different paths of HIV transmittal and besides several methods are available to forestall its transmittal. Currently, many surveies are â€Å" traveling on † to develop new merchandises to forestall and handle HIV patients efficaciously with decreased hazard involved. Besides, public consciousness play a immense function in HIV bar by educating them through assorted resources like chew the fating with them or telephone conversations or supplying proper information on HIV transmittal with its badness. Harmonizing to the recent results of HIV transmittal in the UK, there are assorted factors must be followed by the general populace so that cut down the figure of people by acquiring infected through acquiring sex instruction, attachment to medicines and to avoid unprotected sex or work forces to work forces sex. This can take to healthy long life of our patients and diminish the figure of morbidity and mortality. Centres for Disease co ntrol and Prevention stated that about 50,000 people are freshly infected with HIV in the United States each year.18 From the estimations it shows that HIV is one of the terrible issue in our community which can take to decease as it is easy transmitted. Hence, Prevention of HIV transmittal is the most good factor to salvage our community with development of new merchandises which have different pharmacological marks to avoid opposition of the Drug.

Political Science Essay

INTODUCTION Public administration is indispensable of decision making because decision making very crucial in the sustenance of organisations. There are a number of decision making models .These include rational comprehensive model, satisficing model, incremental model and mixed scanning model. All of them have their assumptions, strengths and weaknesses to be discussed below. None of these models is the best but it depends on the nature of the problem at hand. However, one may argue that rational comprehensive model appears to be the best model among others notwithstanding the fact that it has some limitations. Therefore decision making is very crucial in public administration, as it provides solutions to emanating societal problems. BODY Definition of key terms According to Barron`s Accounting Dictionary, decision making is a purposeful selection from among a set of alternatives in the light of a given objective. According to Web Definitions it is a cognitive process of reaching a decision. To Simon decision making is synonymous with management. He calls it the heart of the organisation. In general decision making is an act of choosing between two or more courses of action. RATIONAL COMPEHENSIVE DECISION MAKING MODEL Assumptions Carley cited in McGrew et al (1982:49) believes that rationality has a common core meaning. That is â€Å"distinction between ends or and goals and means to achieve those goals†¦some rules for evaluating the cost and benefits of each alternative means so as to select the optimum solution to the decision problem in a way which would†¦,be constructed and examined by analysts†. Thus to be rational is to be systematic, logical, intelligent and reasoning. It assumes that decision makers are rational beings who are driven by the need to maximise .It also assumes that one has to be comprehensive in order to be rationality .It assumes that decision makers have predictive capabilities to foresee accurately the consequences of alternative decisions. It also assumes that decision makers have higher propensity to access of information and resources. Thus the rational model has confidence in the decision makers since they are assumed to be rational. Stages involved in rational de cision making process Barber (1983:35)†rational comprehensive decision making approach deals with a programme of logical and sequential steps†. The first step is to identify a problem and all values related to the problem. This is what Hebert Simon call intelligent activity. For example the notion of occupational hazards, deaths and injuries at work place. The second objective is setting of goals and objectives to solve the problem. In this situation objectives might be creation of healthful environment, reduction of deaths and injuries. The third stage is listing all possible alternatives for achieving set goals. This is what Simon calls the design stage. The fourth stage is to list costs and possible consequences. In relation with the given example alternatives may be penalising organisations which are not attaining good health. This may be effective because organisations may comply. However, it may be burdensome on the part of the employer. It may lead to erosion of capital base of the orga nisation and that has the likely hood of hindering production. Awards to organisations which met the required health are another alternative. This may motivate organizations to have high safety standards. However, this may lead some organizations like National Social Security Association (NSSA) to lose. Another alternative is enhancement of inspectors which may be effective. However, it may be ineffective since inspectors may receive bribes. The last stage is to select the best or optimal option. This is what Simon calls choice activity. In this case the best option may be the notion of penal codes. Therefore, it is crucial for a decision maker to follow all the above stages as to complete the process of rational decision making. Strengths and significance It emphasizes the need to think critically through problems. It emphasises on the consequences of national decision making. It also emphasises values of fiscal planning and research. Hence rational model is very significant in providing solutions to encountered problems. Weaknesses Hebert Simon was aware of the limitations of rational model and he developed the idea of bounded rationality. He pointed out those human beings lacks cognitive to optimize. It is expensive and time consuming because of rigorous research and analysis. Decision makers are not always able to comprehend all possible information neither are they able to identify all applicable criteria, all alternatives and their possible consequences. There is no certainty about the future. The model invests in man`s predictive powers hence it remains a utopian. Decision makers are tempted to maximize personal goals than societal goals .For example, it is alleged that the land reform programme benefited the top state officials than the majority. It assumes that agreement can be reached yet reality in urban governance is that there are difficulties on interpersonal social goals. Problems cannot be dealt with in isolation, as the model assumes, because problems are always interconnected. Therefore rational model have its own constraints which then give birth to other models. SATISFICING DECISION MAKING MODEL Assumptions Following the observed problems with rational model Simon (1947) proposed his own model called the satisficing model. According to Online Dictionary â€Å"satisficing is a decision making strategy that aims for satisficing results rather than optimal solution â€Å"This is because optimal solution may necessitate needless expenditure, energy and resources. In reality optimizing model is unrealistic. Realistic model takes into account bounded rationality. When faced with problems, decision makers try to reduce the problem to the level that it can be readily understood but acting within the confines of bounded rationality. Decision makers do not struggle to find the best but stop when they find the first acceptable solution. A simple example is as follows. A task is to sew a patch into a pair of jeans which requires a four inch long with a three millimeter eye. This needle is hidden in a haystack along with thousand other needles varying from size .Satisficing model claims that the f irst needle to sew the patch is the one that should be used. The criteria are far from being exhaustive. In the process decision makers may resort to past solutions or those that have been tried elsewhere. Stages are similar with those of rational model. Therefore, satisficing model emphasizes on satisfying decisions rather than optimal ones. Strengths The theory is based on human capabilities hence it is more realistic than theoretical. The model is faster since there is no in depth study. When there is unlimited amount of information available, the model can be beneficial because it helps the decision maker to effectively and efficiently reach a conclusion. Also it is manageable. It is practical and sensitive to difficulties since it is based on satisficing.This raise the notion of s realistic administrative who is conditioned by organisational culture. Probably that’s why satisficing model is also called administrative model. An organisational man complies with the established rules and regulations and follows the established course of action. Thus man is intentionally rationalized and not naturally rational. Therefore, satisficing model is significant in decision making especially in that it overcomes some of the weaknesses of rational model. Demerits This model can be detrimental when used in the wrong way. For example when considering a medical issue such as diagnosis, it is not the best strategy to use. Another example is when the government is making fundamental decisions like policies concerning declaration of wars; it is not the best method to apply. Thus the model is not best where best decisions need to be made. INCREMENTAL DECISION MAKING MODEL Assumptions Following the observed shortcomings of rational model Lindblom severely criticized the rational model. In its place he substituted it with incremental model. It assumes that the status quo is the basic frame of reference, the focus is only short, only a narrow range of alternatives are considered. Decisions occur through an incremental process of successive limited comparisons. The crucial activities, problems, issues are most important and measurement of costs and benefits occurs informally. In this model the best decision is that which satisfies the demands of immediate situation. Examples include constitutional amendments, budgetary process, resource allocation and distribution. Therefore, incremental model is significant in decision making where emphasis is put on the preservation of status quo. Stages involved The model involves four stages which follow. The first stage is defining goal or objective. In incrementalism, goals and alternatives occur simultaneously. It requires a small set of alternatives to reduce complexity in decision making process. In stage two decision makers only consider a limited number of consequences for each alternative. At stage three problems confronting the decision maker are continually redefined. At stage four an agreement is reached on at least one good solution even if it is not the best possible solution. An example is as follows, status quo Operationâ€Å"Murambatsvina† which was aimed at cleaning the nation of Zimbabwe in 2005.However, it left some people homeless. The new objective may be to provide shelter for these homeless people. The new policy made on incremental bases is Operation â€Å"Garikai† which aimed at building homes for people. Unfortunately it is alleged that this policy was ineffective to some extent since only few people were served under this service because of corruption. Therefore the model has few stages to be followed. Strengths The model is realistic, practical and politically expedient since it is easy to agree on marginal modifications. The model seeks to avoid problems associated with rational model. Thus Lindblom (1947) describes his model as â€Å"The Science of Muddling through†. This model is the most feasible approach to systematic decision making when issues are complex, uncertain and riddled with conflict. It reduces conflicts which are normally associated with radical fundamental decisions. It acknowledges the constraints within which practical decision making takes place. For example it acknowledges that decision makers especially in the government do not usually have time, intelligence, capacity and the will to indulge in rational decision making on a day to day basis. It saves time and resources and acknowledges that problems are not distinct from each other hence interlinked. Hence incremental model is an effective and essential in decision making because of the above strengths. Demerits It is being accused of being conservative hence it is an obstacle to innovation. Booth(1978) cited in McGrew(1982:119) for instance, has described these factors in the machinery of local government in Britain which have inhabited the introduction of alternatives to residential use of strong, â€Å"rational † services against extensive supply of residential provision. Thus the model is incompatible in the making of fundamental decisions. It is not compatible in large scale policy. The model only works in stable conditions. It is accused of promoting short sightedness. Small incremental steps may lead to undesirable consequences. It is also criticise of lack of direction because of the notion of muddling through. Accordingly, incremental model also have its own weaknesses just like other models. MIXED SCANNING DECISION MAKING MODEL Assumptions This model is associated with Amitai Etzioni in 1976.The model takes rational approach and smaller set of decisions to be made incrementally. Thus the application of the model depends on the prevailing situation. The model emphasises scanning of a number of possibilities from which is generated selection of alternatives for action. It is more rational in practice to be selective and systematic about a limited number of feasible options and rationally to examine all the choices, Lee et al (1982:53).For instance, situations like declaration of wars calls for fundamental decisions. Therefore, mixed scanning is also a very significant model of decision making. Strengths It is developed as an adaptive strategy and practical approach to complex and uncertain situations. It reduces the unrealistic aspects of rationalism by limiting the details required in fundamental decisions. Contextualising rationalism helps to overcome the conservative slant of increamentalism by exploring long run alternatives. Hence, â€Å"each of the two elements in mixed scanning helps to reduce shortcomings of the other ,between incrementalism and rationalism† as noted by Etzioni (1969:390) cited in McGrew et al (1982:120).It permits taking advantage of both rational and incremental approaches in different situations. It permits adjustments of rapidly changing environment such as global concern namely security, poverty and diseases by providing flexibility necessary to adapt decision making to specific circumstance. It considers the capacity of decision maker. Ijeoma (2010:20) states that it is best in adverse cultural, political and religious beliefs as well as the economic and developmental inequalities that exist between developed and undeveloped countries. Therefore, one can note that mixed scanning model is essential and very beneficial since it is a combination of two models. Weaknesses It is not clear if the unrealistic and conservative shortcomings would actually be avoided. Specification of details is omitted so that an overview is feasible Therefore this approach seems to have few limitations as compared to other models. CONCLUSION In a nutshell, there are various approaches of decision making which can be applied in different situations. These include rational, satisficing, incremental and mixed scanning. Each model has its assumptions, strengths and weaknesses. None of these is the best, each model is best when applied in a right and appropriate situation. Thus the choice of approach to be used depends on the situation on the ground. It is crucial for decision makers to have the knowledge of where and when any of these models can be applied. Failure to do so may result in undesirable consequences. However, although these models are equally important, one may subjectively argue that rational comprehensive model is the best of them all because of its characteristics. NAME: ROSELINE T CHARUMBIRA REG NUMBER: R123982H DEGREE: POLITICAL SCIENCE COURSE AND COUSE : STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS CODEOF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION (PA111) NAME OF LECTURER:MR ZVOUSHE NAME OF TEACHING : MR CHILUNJIKA ASSISTANCE TUTORIAL GROUP: WEDNESDAY 09:00 – 10:00 DATE OF SUBMISSION: 10-04-13 QUESTION : OUTLINE AND CRITICALLY DISSCUSS ANY FOUR MODELS OF DECISION MAKING IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barber ,M.P.1983. Public Administration.3rd edition. Britain: Macdonald and Evans Barons Accounting Dictionary. Ijeoma,E.O.2010.Africa`s New Public Policy: Imperatives for Globalisation and the National building in Nigeria. South Africa: Africa Institute of South Afric Lee,K.Mills,A.1982.Policy-Making and Planning in Health Sector. Britan: Croom Helm Ltd. McGrew ,A .G .Wilson ,M.J.1982.Decision Making: Approaches and Analysis. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Online Dictionary Web Definitions.Decision Making.Retrieved from http://www.answers.com/topic/decision making.accessed on 02/o4/13

Cultural anthropology Essay

Cultural anthropology is one of the most important fields of anthropology that explores cultural variation among people and promotes culture as a meaningful scientific concept. The aim of this paper is to explore the key concepts, such as subsistence practices, economic systems, issues w/social stratification, marriage practices, kinship and marital residence, political life, religion and arts, and issues w/globalization or the environment, taking, as a case in point, African culture. Subsistence Practices In 1930s the researchers developed a better classification based on peculiarities of the subsistence practices (the methods and sources used by society to get the food and other necessary things in order to survive). This classification, being based on economic differences, was much more effective, as far as a culture is â€Å"directly related to its economy† (O’Neil, 2006). In such a way, the world cultures were divided into four types according to the subsistence practices: foraging (gathering wild plants and hunting), pastoralism (herding domesticated animals), horticulture (low intensity farming), and intensive agriculture (large scale farming). Intensive agriculture is the primary subsistence practice of such large-scale, populous society like Africa. Moreover, three fifth African citizens are subsistence farmers. Africa has a well-developed agricultural sector that provides for the most domestic needs. In addition, the country exports wool, corn, tobacco, peanuts, sugar, and other important farm products. Economic System Different types of culture have different economic systems, not only in terms of the scale (e. g. isolated, small-scale economies vs. large-scale economies), but also in terms of their systems of production (the subsistence practices), distribution and exchange. African economic system consists of industry, trade and resources of the nations of African countries. Africa is considered to be the poorest inhabited continent in the world. Its poverty is partially rooted in its history due to uncertain transition from colonialism. Being the country with poor economy, Africa has no complex market exchange system. African agricultural sector employs approximately sixty per cent of the country’s inhabitants. The most important exports are petroleum and minerals. Investment and banking is very problematic due to the country’s uncertain economy. Issues w/social stratification People are social human beings; and, having a need in social contact they live in isolation quite rarely. Social institutions and social groups have their own specific functions, which may overlap and are interconnected in multiple complex ways. Manifest functions are obvious, while latent functions are more difficult to discover and are less apparent. In all social groups people have a social status and a certain role to fulfill. Status is a â€Å"relative social position within a group† (O’Neil, 2006), while a social role is â€Å"the part our society expects us to play in a given status† (O’Neil, 2006). Alike other countries, Africans achieve statuses in two basic ways: the achieved social status is one the person acquires by doing something, whereas the ascribed status is the â€Å"result of being born into a particular family or being born male or female† (O’Neil, 2006) (e. g. some casts in African indigenous tribes). Social groups in Africa are organized on a basis of age, gender, common interest (e. g. avocation (fraternal organizations), vocation (trade unions), common residence (neighborhood organizations), religious belonging (membership in a certain church), past experience (veterans clubs), political beliefs (political parties), to mention a few. Marriage practices Marriage is â€Å"the socially recognized union of two or more people† (O’Neil, 2006), which functions as a glue in the organization of society. It is generally referred to as an efficient way to regulate heterosexual intercourse by determining â€Å"who is socially accepted as a sexual partner and who is not† (O’Neil, 2006). After the marriage, all other people, except of the souse, are treated as off limits for sexual access. Different societies have different views on sexual access restrictions, and, therefore, have different marriage practices. For example, in Africa marriage partner selection to a great extent depends on complex rules, which vary significantly from region to region. In addition, the concepts of beauty are also considerably different in different cultures (e. g. African countries consider large and pump bodies to be attractive, while European countries prefer slim women). Ttraditionally, African marriage is a kind of alliance between the kin groups. As well as in other countries, marriage partner selection restrictions in Africa imply two basic categories: exogamy and endogamy rules. Exogamy rules insist that marriage should occur outside of a certain social group (e. g. family) (in other words, exogamy explains who the person cannot marry), while endogamy rules require that the marriage should be â€Å"within some larger group, such as the local community† (O’Neil, 2006) (in other words, endogamy explains who the person is recommended to marry). For example, in Zambia a woman is not allowed to seek for marriage (it is a taboo). Pre-colonial marriage in Africa was a kind of transaction between the two kin groups, where the bridewealth was paid to the bride’s family. During the period of colonialism polygyny (the marriage of more than one spouse at a time) was a common practice. Nowadays, the vast majority of African countries have serial monogamy (a â€Å"marriage to multiple spouses but only one at a time†) (O’Neil, 2006) Kinship Kin groups are very important part of African culture. Kinship is a culturally determined relationship between the people who are â€Å"commonly thought of as having family ties† (O’Neil, 2006). African culture uses kinship to classify people and to form social groups. Yet, as with other cultural practices, kinship patterns and rules are different for different types of country’s region. African kinship is â€Å"the most important social organizing principle along with gender and age† (O’Neil, 2006), because it â€Å"provides a means for transmitting skills and property from generation to generation† (O’Neil, 2006). No wonder that inheritance rights are predominantly based on kinship ties. Marital Residence Alike the vast majority of societies, African newly married couples rarely establish their own residence. Instead, they generally become a part of compound household occupied by relatives or a part of existing household. There are several types of residence in Africa: Patrilocal residence (when a couple establishes their home not far from or in the groom’s father’s house). It is the most common type of marital residence followed by the vast majority of African population; Matrilocal residence (when a newly married couple establishes their home not far from or in the bride’s mother’s house); Avunculocal residence (a couple establishes their home not far from or in the groom’s maternal uncle’s house); Ambilocal residence (when a newly married couple establishes their home not far from or in the bride’s or groom’s house); Neolocal residence (when a newly married couple establishes their home independent of both sets of relatives). Other types of marital residence (e. g. virilocal, uxorilocal, and natolocal) occur very rarely in African culture. Political life Alike all other countries, Africa has some sort of political system, because the politics is a â€Å"competition for power over people and things† (O’Neil, 2006). The simplest type of political systems can be presented in bands and tribes (in Ancient Africa and some modern African indigenous tribes). These kinds of societies are acephalous (Greek – without a head) (with no leader in the sense we commonly expect) (O’Neil, 2006). Tribes are a little bit more complicated system, compared to the band. Nowadays, modern Africa has plenty of political structures organized into bureaucracies of positions. Each of them has different levels of power, responsibility and authority. African Union (AU) consists of all Africa’s states except Morocco. African Union has a parliamentary government (the AU Government) and consists of judicial, legislative and executive organs. It is headed by the Head of State and the AU President Gertrude Ibengwe Mongella. Religion Generally, religion is a system of beliefs that usually involves the worship of supernatural beings and/ or forces. Religion plays an important role in African culture, as far as it introduces a kind of order â€Å"in what might otherwise be seen as a chaotic existence† (O’Neil, 2006) and provides the meaning and understanding for inexplicable things and events. African religious people define religious beliefs as the core of their world views. Sub-Saharan African traditional religion revolves around ancestor worship and animism. Indigenous African religion divides the ancestor spirits into two categories: helpful and harmful and involves the performance of rituals (a stylized and repetitive act that occurs at a set time and location and involves the use of symbolic words, objects and actions). African religion has psychological and social functions. It helps people confronting and explaining death, fears, and anxiety about the unknown and supernatural. They can â€Å"provide a basis for common purpose and values that can help maintain social solidarity† (O’Neil, 2006). In addition, there are many other religions in Africa, such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, to mention a few. According to Encyclopedia Britannica, about 46. 5% of all Africans are Christians and another 40. 5% are Muslims with about 11. 8% of Africans following indigenous African religions. African Art African culture enjoys a rich tradition of crafts and arts, such as brass, leather art works, woodcarvings, paintings, sculpture, pottery, religious and ceremonial headgear and dress, to mention a few. As far as Africans devote much attention to personal appearance, jewelry is the most important personal accessory. Traditionally, Africans make jewelry from cowry shells. The art of making masks is one of the most important aspects of African culture. There are several themes widely used in African art and craft. Couple theme is one of the most interesting, because, unlike in European cultures, the couple theme rarely expresses the intimacy between man and woman. Instead, the couples are most likely to represent married couple, ancestors, twins, and community founders, etc. Mother’s or woman’s theme is the second most important theme in African art. It embodies the woman’s desire to have a child, and may symbolize mother earth. The depiction of the man with the weapon or depiction of animals traditionally symbolizes power and honor. Issues w/globalization or the environment Africa is the country solely dependent on rains, global warming may cause devastating effect on the country by worsening the food supply and, consequently, exacerbating the widespread poverty in the entire African continent. Moreover, it is assumed that the reality of globalization for African continent is dramatically environmentally destructive and the human influenced environmental catastrophe in Africa is worsened by the impact of globalization that may result in further devastation of the continent. References O’Neil, D. D. (2006, November 30). Cultural Anthropology. Retrieved May 24, 2007, from http://anthro. palomar. edu/tutorials/cultural. htm